.c.   .••'ts   ' 


THE 

California  Vegetables 

IN 

Garden  and  Field 


A    MANUAL   OF   PRACTICE,   WITH    AND    WITHOUT    IRRIGATION,    FOR    SEMI-TROPICAL 

COUNTRIES. 


THIRD  EDITION— REVISED  AND   EXTENDED; 


By  EDWARD  J.  WICKSON,  A.  M. 

Professor   of  Horticulture   in  the  University   of   California;   Author   of   "California   Fruits 

and  How  to  Grow  Them;"  Editor  of  the  "Pacific  Rural  Press"  of  San  Francisco; 

Member    of   the    National    Council    of   Horticulture,    etc. 


PACIFIC  RURAL  PRESS 

SAN  FRANCISCO 

1913 


RIG. 
LIBRARY 


COPYRIGHT  1913 
BY 

EDWARD  j.  WICKSON  and  PACIFIC  RURAL  PRESS. 


Preface  to  Third  Edition. 


The  author  returns  thanks  for  the  accelerative  appreciation  which  the 
public  extends  to  this  work.  The  second  edition  melted  in  the  fire  of 
popular  favor  in  one-fourth  of  the  time  required  for  the  reduction  of  the 
first  edition.  Frank  acknowledgment  is  made  of  the  fact  that  this  increased 
demand  is  due  to  the  rapidly  advancing  recognition  of  California  as  the 
best  place  in  the  world  to  live  and  to  work  with  plants,  and  the  author  is 
happy  to  minister  to  the  realization  of  this  conception  in  the  lives  of 
thousands. 

The  purpose  of  the  work  is  to  give  the  newcomer,  or  old-resident 
beginner,  an  understanding  of  the  peculiar  conditions  which  he  encounters 
in  California  and  descriptions  of  gardening  practices  which  attain  most  sat- 
isfactory results  under  those  conditions.  Experienced  gardeners  from  other 
states  and  countries  soon  find  that  their  accustomed  procedure  fails  of  its 
wonted  results;  that  the  old  times  and  ways  of  doing  things  are  unsuitable, 
and  that  new  rules  of  practice  must  be  learned.  Often  those  who  have  had 
no  earlier  gardening  experience  seek  a  rural  home  in  California  and  burn 
with  a  desire  to  possess  the  delights  of  a  home  garden.  They  soon  find 
that  following  the  advice  to  beginners  given  in  books  written  for  other 
climates,  yields  little  but  disappointment. 

Conditions  of  soil  and  climate  in  California  are  varied  .to  the  last  degree, 
and  practice  must  vary  with  them.  No  matter  how  skilful  and  successful 
a  man  may  be  in  his  particular  locality,  his  experience  can  only  be  a  safe 
guide  to  those  who  happen  to  work  under  similar  conditions.  For  this 
reason,  though  there  have  been  admirable  local  writers  on  garden  practice 
from  the  beginning,  their  writings,  no  matter  how  diligently  collected  and 
how  well  printed,  would  not  constitute  a  suggestive  treatise  unless  the 
inquirer  should  analyze  the  local  conditions  and  practice  and  translate  them 
into  terms  of  wide  applicability.  To  do  this  it  is  necessary  that  the  princi- 
ples underlying  the  successful  practice  should  be  discerned  and  the  signifi- 
cance of  conditions  be  interpreted.  This  task  could  only  be  discharged  by 
one  who  has  had  opportunity  for  wide  collection  of  data,  and  for  extended 
personal  observation  as  well,  and  one  for  whom  labor  would  be  continually 
lightened  by  enthusiastic  delight  in  the  subject  itself.  All  these  advantages 
the  writer  can  frankly  claim,  but  how  well  they  have  been  employed  in  this 
work  it  is  for  the  reader  to  judge. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  edition,  the  text  has  been  carefully  revised  and 
freshened  with  the  latest  information,  and  the  type  has  been  re-set  through- 
out. In  a  work  of  this  kind,  involving  the  experience  and  observation  of 

(v) 

264634 


VI  PREFACE 

many  individuals  during  a  considerable  period  of  time,  it  is  impossible  to 
render  a  full  account  of  the  writer's  indebtedness.  Wherever  direct  use  has 
been  made  of  the  experience  and  methods  which  others  have  formulated,  an 
attempt  has  been  made  to  render  definite  credit  to  the  source.  When  such 
accounts  of  experience  are  used  without  citation  of  publication,  credit  is,  in 
most  cases,  due  to  the  columns  of  the  Pacific  Rural  Press,  a  journal  which 
has  been  the  chief  medium  for  the  publication  of  information  of  this  kind 
for  the  last  forty-three  years.  EDWARD  J.  WICKSON. 

University  of  California,  Berkeley,  May,  1913. 


CONTENTS. 


I.    Vegetable  growing  in  California. 

II.  Farmer's  Gardens  in  California. 

III.  California's  Climate  as  Related  to  Vegetable  Growing. 

IV.  Vegetable  Soils  of  California. 
V.  Garden  Irrigation. 

VI.  Garden  Drainage. 

VII.  Cultivation. 

VIII.  Fertilization. 

IX.  Garden  Location  and  Arrangement. 

X.  The  Planting  Season. 

XI.  Propagation. 

XII.  Artichokes. 

XIII.  Asparagus. 

XIV.  Beans. 
XV.  Beet. 

XVI.  Cabbage  Family. 

XVII.  Carrot,   Parsnip,   and   Salsify.  - 

XVIII.  Celery. 

XIX.  Chicory  and  Endive. 

XX.  Corn. 

XXI.  Cucumber. 

XXII.  Egg  Plant. 

XXIII.  Lettuce. 

XXIV.  Melons. 
XXV.  Onion  Family. 

XXVI.  Peas. 

XXVII.  Peppers. 

XXVIII.  Potatoes. 

XXIX.  Radishes. 

XXX.  Rhubarb. 

XXXI.  Spinach. 

XXXII.  Squashes. 

'  vi 


Vlll 


CONTENTS 


XXXIII.  Tomato. 

XXXIV.  Turnip. 

XXXV.  Vegetable  Sundries. 

XXXVI.  Vegetables  for  Canning  and  Drying. 

XXXVII.  Seed  Growing  in  California. 

XXXVIII.  Garden  Protection. 

XXXIX.  Weeds  in  California. 


CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES. 


CHAPTER    I. 
VEGETABLE  GROWING  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

Though  California  enjoys  world-wide  fame  for  fruits  it  is  an 
interesting  fact  that  the  state  first  won  horticultural  recognition 
upon  achievements  in  vegetable  growing.  Garden  seeds  were  more 
easily  transported  than  trees  and  formed  a  part  of  the  scant  bag- 
gage of  many  gold-seekers.  Seeds  were  also  freely  sent  by  home 
friends  or  quickly  obtained  on  orders  to  eastern  dealers  as  soon  as 
the  agriculturists  among  the  argonauts  saw  their  opportunity  in  the 
fabulous  rates  which  esculents  commanded.  Results  too  were  more 
quickly  secured  with  garden  seeds  than  with  fruit  trees.  Only  a 
few  weeks  after  their  planting  the  grower  saw  that  he  was  dealing 
with  forcing  and  developing  agencies  in  climate  and  soil  more 
effective  than  any  he  had  known  in  his  old  home  and  he  was  quite 
as  surprised  at  his  own  achievements  as  his  eastern  friends  were 
incredulous  of  his  descriptions  of  them.  They  were  ready  to  believe 
anything  about  gold,  because  their  conception  of  a  gold  country 
involved  its  traditional  right  to  be  fabulous,  but  such  a  concession 
was  not  to  be  made  to  common  vegetables.  Eastern  people  knew 
cabbages  and  beans  and  to  attribute  to  them  colossal  dimensions 
and  to  allege  that  they  grew  from  seed  to  succotash  without  a  drop 
of  rain  was  simply  coarse  lying.  It  is  easy  to  see  why  a  milder  word 
would  be  considered  inadequate,  for  the  following  was  one  of  Cali- 
fornia's first  horticultural  proclamations : 

On  land  owned  and  cultivated  by  Mr.  James  Williams,  of  Santa  Cruz,  an 
onion  grew  to  the  enormous  weight  of  twenty-one  pounds,  and  a  turnip 
was  grown  which  equaled  exactly  in  size  the  top  of  a  flour  barrel.  On  land 
owned  and  cultivated  by  Thomas  Fallen,  a  cabbage  grew  which  measured, 

(9) 


«A°"»  "  •  ••   •  "    • 

10*  "c*  .   -CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 


white  :'gro Wing, *  thirteen  > feet  and  six  inches  around  its  body.  The  weight  is 
not  known.  A  beet  grown  by  Mr.  Isaac  Brannan,  at  San  Jose,  weighed 
sixty-three  pounds;  carrots  three  feet  in  length,  weighed  forty  pounds.  At 
Stockton  a  turnip  weighed  one  hundred  pounds,  and  at  a  dinner  for  twelve 
persons,  of  a  single  potato,  larger  than  the  size  of  an  ordinary  hat,  all  par- 
took, leaving  at  least  the  half  untouched.1 

These  statements  are  vouched  for  by  twelve  persons  whose 
names  are  given.  To  save  the  respect  of  their  eastern  friends  and 
at  the  same  time  to  loyally  make  known  the  horticultural  glory  of 
the  land  they  had  found,  the  early  vegetable  growers  had  recourse 
to  public  exhibitions.  The  first  was  held  in  the  fall  of  1851  in  San 
Francisco.  The  exhibits  did  not  quite  equal  the  verdict  of  the 
horticultural  jury  cited  above  but  they  were  notable,  e.  g. :  a  red 
beet  from  San  Jose,  twenty-eight  inches  in  circumference,  weight 
forty-seven  pounds;  beets  two  months  from  seed  in  San  Francisco, 
six  and  seven  pounds ;  cabbage  from  Mission  San  Jose  seven  feet 
in  circumference,  weight,  fifty-six  pounds;  cucumbers  eighteen 
inches  in  length ;  onions  five,  six  and  seven  inches  in  diameter  from 
a  product  of  nearly  seventy  thousand  pounds  to  the  acre;  potatoes 
from  Santa  Cruz,  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  pounds  from  the  five 
vines  of  a  single  hill  and  one  potato  from  Santa  Clara  thirteen 
inches  in  length,  weighing  seven  and  a  quarter  pounds ;  pumpkins 
and  squashes  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  forty  pounds 
each. 

The  demonstrations  furnished  by  such  public  exhibitions,  of 
which  there  were  several  in  the  early  years  of  San  Francisco,  were 
accepted  at  the  east,  and  even  such  conservative  experts  as  the  late 
Dr.  Warder  of  Ohio  were  led  to  exclaim,  as  early  as  1852:  "truly 
this  is  a  wonderful  country."  2  To  fully  appreciate  the  significance 
of  the  facts  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  varieties  were  those  of 
nearly  half  a  century  ago  and  the  culture  was  wholly  lacking  in  the 
intensive  arts  which  are  common  property  of  vegetable  growers  of 
the  present  day.  The  immensity  of  the  specimens  and  of  the  crop, 
wonderful  to  the  grower  and  incredible  to  the  distant  hearer,  was 
simply  the  exponent  of  the  capacity  of  a  virgin  soil,  in  which 
fertility  had  been  accumulating  for  ages,  and  the  forcing  power  of 
a  climate  wholly  new  to  Americans.  In  later  years  California  has 
surpassed  even  these  early  standards  through  the  employment  of 


'Rep.  of  the  Com.  of  Patents  for  1851 :   Part  II,  p.  4. 
2Western   Hort.   Review,   Feb.,   1852. 


PIONEER   VEGETABLE    GROWING  11 

higher  horticultural  skill,  as  will  be  described  presently,  but  it  was 
upon  the  achievements  of  the  vegetable  growers  at  the  very  begin- 
ning of  the  American  occupation  that  California's  horticultural  rep- 
utation was  established. 

Hozv  the  Pioneers  Prospered  by  Vegetable  Growing. — It  would 
be  easy  to  collect  quite  a  volume  of  interesting  instances  of  how 
success  was  attained  in  the  early  days,  but  a  single  experience  must 
suffice.  It  illustrates  both  the  resources  of  the  pioneers  and  the 
country  which  they  found.  G.  G.  Briggs  left  New  York  state  in 
April  1849,  and  arrived  in  California  in  October  of  the  same  year, 
driving  an  ox  team  and  walking  most  of  the  way.  He  says : 

When  I  arrived  in  California  I  saw  at  once  that  there  were  other  means 
of  accumulating  gold  besides  digging  it  from  the  mines;  that  miners  and 
all  classes  would  need  turnips  and  cabbage  and  other  products  of  the  soil; 
that  even  then  many  were  suffering  with  scurvy  and  other  diseases  for  the 
want  of  fresh  vegetable  food.  The  large  crops  of  native  grapes  on  the  banks 
of  the  Sacramento  were  proof  of  the  productive  capacity  of  the  California 
soil  and  climate.  Reaching  Sacramento,  our  party  of  four  had  no  money 
and  no  property  but  our  wagon  and  three  yoke  of  oxen.  I  could  find  no 
work  whatever.  I  got  trusted  by  a  storekeeper  for  a  sack  of  walnuts  and 
sold  them  to  passers  by  the  teacupful  and  in  five  days  cleared  fifty  dollars. 
We  sold  our  oxen  and  with  my  part  of  the  money  I  went  to  San  Francisco 
to  buy  garden  seeds  with  which  to  start  vegetable  growing  on  a  piece  of 
land  I  had  previously  seen  in  the  bottom  of  the  Yuba  river,  near  the  present 
site  of  Marysville.  As  it  was  too  early  in  the  season  to  plant,  I  bought  a 
whale-boat  and  began  freighting  goods;  and  by  spring  I  had  accumulated 
about  three  thousand  dollars.  The  last  load  freighted  by  me  included  a  ton 
of  potatoes,  which  cost  me  forty  cents  a  pound.  My  seeds  and  potatoes 
were  planted  in  March,  1851,  and  everything  was  doing  well  until  cut  to 
the  ground  by  frost  on  April  19.  My  potatoes,  however,  came  up  again  and 
made  a  fair  crop.  I  was  not  to  be  cheated  out  of  my  vegetable  crop,  and 
started  out  again  to  buy  seeds,  but  could  find  none,  either  in  Sacramento  or 
in  San  Francisco.  Returning  to  Sacramento,  I  chanced  upon  some  water- 
melon seeds  on  the  boat,  and  bought  the  lot  for  twenty  dollars.  With  these 
I  planted  five  acres,  and  cleaned  up  about  five  thousand  dollars  for  one  sum- 
mer's work.  The  next  year  I  planted  about  twenty-six  acres  of  watermelons, 
and  in  the  fall  I  found  I  had  twenty  thousand  dollars  for  my  summer's 
work.3 

With  the  money  Mr.  Briggs  returned  to  New  York  for  his  fam- 
ily and  brought  also,  on  his  return,  some  fruit  trees,  and  laid  the 
foundation  of  his  subsequent  brilliant  record  as  a  pioneer  fruit 

8Condensed  from  narrative  of  G.  G.  Briggs,  in  Rep.  State  Ag'l  Soc.  1881. 
Another  account  (Rep.  1858)  says  this  watermelon  crop  was  grown  by  Mr. 
Briggs  with  the  aid  of  two  men. 


12  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

grower.  Others  followed  about  the  same  course  and  thus  vegetable 
growing  became  not  only  the  basis  of  California's  horticultural 
reputation  but  actually  furnished  the  capital  for  the  ventures  which 
demonstrated  the  possibility  of  our  great  fruit  industries. 

Vegetables  at  the  Missions  and  the  Ranches. — The  American 
pioneers  found  little  at  the  establishments  of  the  old  regime  that 
was  instructive  or  even  suggestive.  In  fact  the  Spanish  conception 
of  the  agricultural  capacity  and  adaptability  of  the  country  was  not 
only  inadequate:  it  was  erroneous  as  well.  Though  the  missions 
had  gardens  they  were  almost  destitute  of  gardening  as  we  under- 
stand the  term  and  whether  the  Spanish  and  Mexican  settlers  were 
deterred  from  vegetable  growing  by  their  distaste  for  any  physical 
exertion,  away  from  the  saddle,  or  by  their  ignorance  of  the  fitness 
of  the  country,  is  not  a  question  of  much  importance  in  this  connec- 
tion. Hittell  says:  "Gardening  was  not  attempted  except  on  a 
very  small  scale  and  only  for  such  vegetables  as  could  be  produced 
with  very  little  labor.  .  .  .  Potatoes  and  turnips  were  rare  and 
of  garden  vegetables  in  general  it  may  be  said  that  until  the  advent 
of  foreign  settlers  they  were  scarcely  cultivated."  4  Bryant,  who 
visited  California  in  1846  and  examined  the  Los  Angeles  gardens, 
saw  only  onions,  potatoes,  red  peppers  and  beans  and  added  that  he 
believed  other  vegetables  would  grow  as  well  as  they. 

Illustrating  the  inability  of  the  rancheros  to  understand  the 
wide  applicability  of  the  simple  horticultural  lessons  given  at  the 
missions,  it  is  related  that  at  the  time  of  the  American  settlement 
most  of  the  Spanish  families  living  in  different  parts  of  Alameda 
and  Contra  Costa  had  their  garden  patches  near  the  Mission  San 
Jose.  They  knew  fruit  and  vegetables  would  grow  there,  because 
they  had  seen  them  in  the  mission  gardens  and  they  did  not  know 
they  would  grow  elsewhere  and  had  not  taken  the  trouble  to  find 
out.  Thus  the  Estudillos  of  San  Leandro  had  their  garden  patch  at 
the  Mission  San  Jose  and  transported  their  vegetables  fifteen  or 
twenty  miles  while  right  outside  the  door  of  their  house  at  San 
Leandro  was  the  finest  garden  soil  in  the  world,  and  they  did  not 
know  it  ! 8 

Neither  the  mission  gardeners  nor  the  rancheros  had  any  idea 
of  the  capacity  of  the  country  for  summer  crops  without  irrigation 
and  without  any  adequate  conception  of  the  offices  of  cultivation 

-.'Hist,  of  California,  Vol.   II,  p.  474. 
Interview  with  Hon.  J.  L.  Beard,  in  Oakland  Enquirer,  May  15,  1897. 


VICISSITUDES  OF  EARLY  VEGETABLE  GROWING  13 

they  could  hardly  have  attained  it.  Hence,  not  having  the  irrigation 
facilities  which  were  developed  at  the  missions,  and  not  being  in- 
clined to  any  labor  by  which  their  own  lands  could  be  irrigated, 
they  would  naturally  go  to  the  water  rather  than  attempt  to  bring 
the  water  to  their  land  for  anything  more  than  stock  and  domestic 
uses.  Almost  at  sight  the  American  pioneer  horticulturists  dis- 
cerned possibilities  and  adaptations  in  the  soil  and  climate  which  their 
predecessors  had  not  discovered  during  seventy-five  years  of  occupa- 
tion. The  relations  of  race  to  horticultural  progress  are  very  inter- 
esting. 

Vicissitudes  of  Early  Vegetable  Growing. — Those  who  first  dis- 
cerned the  fact  that  it  was  easier  to  get  gold  with  the  hoe  than  with 
the  pick,  realized  market  prices  as  surprisingly  great  as  the  vege- 
tables they  grew.  John  M.  Horner,  of  Alameda  county,  is  reported 
to  have  cleared  about  $150,000  from  his  large  venture  of  eight 
hundred  acres  in  vegetable  growing  in  1851,  and  others  gained 
much  more  per  acre  than  he,  with  smaller  operations  which  did  not 
require  so  much  high-priced  labor.  But  the  demonstration  of  their 
success  proved  its  destruction.  Plantations  were  made  out  of  all 
proportion  to  requirements  and  disastrous  overproduction  speedily, 
ensued.  The  second  year  after  the  exhibition  in  San  Francisco,  to 
which  allusion  has  been  made  there  was  a  collapse.  The  follow- 
ing account  of  potato  growing  shows  how  sharp  was  the  turn  in 
affairs : 

In  1852  Beard  &  Horner's  potato  crop  at  Alvarado  averaged  200  sacks 
(about  twelve  tons)  to  the  acre,  and  sold  for  upwards  of  $100,000.  The 
following  year  everybody  cultivated  them.  In  Pajaro  valley  20,000  sacks 
were  one  day  bet  on  a  horse-race.  Beard  &  Horner  contracted  theirs  in 
advance  at  two  and  a  half  cents  a  pound  to  San  Francisco  merchants. 
Garrison  took  one  million  pounds,  which  were  never  removed,  but  were 
allowed  to  rot  on  the  ground.  Saunders  &  Co.  purchased  a  large  quantity, 
which  they  stowed  away  in  a  hulk  in  the  bay.  As  warm  weather  came  on 
the  potatoes  commenced  growing  and  threatened  to  burst  the  vessel  open. 
They  commenced  dumping  the  potatoes  into  the  bay,  but  the  harbor  master 
stopped  it,  and  the  owners  had  to  pay  for  their  removal  to  another  locality.6 

With  the  first  disaster  the  charm  and  spirit  of  pioneer  vege- 
table growing  passed  away.  There  was,  of  course,  quick  recovery 
in  values  and  very  profitable  business  done,  but  it  was  not  the 
same  grand  affair  and  it  did  not  accord  with  the  adventurous  spirit 
of  the  day.  Small  growers  near  the  cities  and  the  mining  camps 

6Centennial  Year  Book  of  Alameda  County,  p.  483. 


14  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

did  well,  but  there  was  not  dash  enough  about  market  gardening 
for  Americans  and  it  was  soon  given  over  to  immigrants  from  the 
south  of  Europe  and  China  and  has  never  been  recovered.  Field 
growth  of  staple  vegetables  on  a  large  scale  has  been  continued 
by  Americans,  but  even  in  this  line  he  has  often  been  obliged  to 
withdraw  from  competition  with  Chinese,  Portuguese  and  Italians 
with  their  cheaper  labor  supply  and  living  expenses.  Great  enter- 
prises in  live  stock,  wheat,  wool  and  fruit  afforded  opportunities 
more  to  the  American  taste  than  vegetable  growing.  The  Ameri- 
can settler  had  incomparably  more  energy  and  industrial  ambition' 
than  his  predecessors,  the  Mexicans,  but  he  shared  with  them  a 
liking  for  doing  his  work  in  the  saddle  or  on  the  seat  of  a  riding 
plow,  cultivator  or  harvester.  Within  a  decade  from  the  date  of 
the  American  demonstration  of  the  unique  fitness  of  California 
for  vegetable  growing  there  arose  occasion  for  frequent  exhorta- 
tions to  Californian  farmers  to  restore  the  garden  to  its  proper 
place  in  farm  plan  and  policy,  and  yet  California  farmers  neglected 
to  supply  their  own  tables  and  the  proper  adornment  of  their  house 
yards  until  the  ranch  home  in  this  land  of  beauty  and  grand  horti- 
cultural opportunities  became  a  byword  for  unthrift  and  desolation. 
Some  aspects  of  this  matter  will  be  presented  in  a  following 
chapter. 

Competition  with  Foreigners.— One  of  the  difficulties  of  the 
present  situation  is  that  while  the  American-born  Californian  has 
decried  vegetable  growing,  the  immigrant  from  southern  Europe, 
China  and  Japan  have  strongly  entrenched  themselves  in  it.  Now 
the  competition  which  the  American  grower  has  to  encounter  is 
depressing  and  discouraging.  And  yet  the  situation  is  not  at  all 
hopeless.  The  foreigners  are  not,  as  a  rule,  progressive.  They  are 
frugal  and  industrious  to  an  extreme  and  they  undertake  a  great 
deal  to  please  their  customers  with  variety  as  well  as  low  prices. 
In  some  points  the  Arnerican  competitor  can  learn  from  them  to 
advantage.:  But  it  is  quite  easy  to  surpass  them  in  quality  by 
constant  effort  for  improved  varieties,  which  they  are  slow  to 
introduce, .and  to  cheapen  production  by  the  use  of  horse  labor  and 
•improved  tools,  while  they  plod  along  with  hand  methods  and  appli- 
ances—although it  is  only  fair  to  admit  that  the  Japanese  are  more 
progressive  and  ambitious  of  leadership  and  proprietorship  and  there- 
fore more  formidable  rivals.  However,  if  the  California  farmer 
should  put  forth  the  same  effort  to  adapt  conditions  to  ends  and  to 


THE  CHANCE  FOR  AMERICANS  15 

keep  himself  at  the  very  front  in  materials  and  arts  of  production 
in  the  growing  and  selling  of  vegetables  that  he  has  employed  in 
the  growing  and  selling  of  fruit,  we  should  hear  far  less  of  the 
superiority  of  the  foreigner  in  the  vegetable  garden. 

There  have  arisen  during  the  last  few  years  quite  notable 
instances  of  the  truth  of  this  claim,  and  almost  everywhere  in  the 
vicinity  of  towns  some  market  gardens  by  Americans  can  be  found. 
The  situation  is  well  portrayed  in  the  following  paragraph  from  an 
address  at  a  Farmers'  Institute  by  one  of  the  most  successful 
vegetable  growers  of  southern  California : 7 

The  business  of  -growing  vegetables  has  grown  step  by  step,  until  at 
present  it  is  a  great  industry,  mostly  in  the  hands  of  Asiatics.  Yet  in  some 
places  white  men  are  getting  a  share  of  the  trade,  and  if  they  would  combine 
and  exchange  vegetables,  as  the  Chinamen  do,  they  would  soon  have  the 
bulk  of  the  business.  The  people  of  California  know  no  seasons  for  the 
different  vegetables,  as  they  do  at  the  east.  They  demand  beets,  lettuce, 
onions,  radishes,  turnips,  and  cabbage  the  year  round,  and  they  want  aspara- 
gus, peas,  parsnips,  salsify,  and  cauliflowers  nearly  all  the  time.  White  men 
should  combine  and  exchange  different  kinds,  for  one  man  can  hardly  succeed 
in  having  all  varieties  in  the  proper  quantities,  as  different  soils  and  locations 
produce  different  results.  But  the  average  Californian  does  not  take  kindly 
to  the  business.  He  considers  it  "puttering"  work.  Yet  it  is  far  ahead  of 
wheat  raising.  It  takes  study,  and  lots  of  it,  to  keep  abreast  of  the  times, 
for  we  can  not  raise  the  vegetables  of  ten  or  twenty  years  ago  and  make 
a  success  of  the  business.  There  has  been  as  great  improvement  in  vegetables 
as  in  other  things.  There  is  scarcely  a  region  in  southern  California  where 
an  industrious,  energetic  man  could  not  work  up  a  trade  along  this  line. 
He  should  not  expect  to  make  a  fortune  in  a  few  years,  but  after  the  first 
few  months  he  would  have  a  steady  income,  increasing  from  time  to  time, 
as  he  learned  the  wants  of  his  customers  and  catered  to  them. 

Recent  Achievements  in  Vegetable  Growing. — Although  Cali- 
fornia horticulturists  as  a  class  are  charged  with  neglect  of  veg- 
etable growing,  and  though  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  term 
horticulture  and  its  derivatives  are  almost  wholly  used  in  California 
to  signify  fruit  growing,  it  is  an  important  fact  that  we  have  still 
vegetable  growers  who  are  able  to  win  victories  quite  as  notable 
in  their  way  as  the  great  achievements  of  the  gold  era.  The  prizes 
awarded  by  eastern  seedsmen  in  competitions  open  to  the  whole 
country  show  indisputably  the  eminence  of  California,  and  are  the 
more  valuable  because  the  weights  are  certified  by  the  judges  in 
these  contests : 


7S.  J.  Murdock,  Westminster,  Orange  County. 


16  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

GROWERS                                                  VARIETIES  WEIGHTS 

F.   Roberts,         Arroyo  Grande Prizetaker  Onion,  single  specimen 4  Ibs.  12  oz. 


J.  V.  N.  Young,  Silver  King  Onion, 

Forest  Roberts,        "  Jumbo  Mangel, 

.  V.  N.  Young,        "  Imp.  Sugar  Beet, 


Ran 


dolph  Byers,  Wethersfield  Onion,  y  eld  acre 


Mrs.  I.  D.  Hall,  Orange,  Cal Jumbo  Mangel,       single  specimen 39  Ibb. 


.4  Ibs.  9oz. 
.91  Ibs. 


.66.905  Ibs. 


.6  Ibs.  2  oz. 
.35K  Ibs. 


13 1M  Ibs. 


W.   A.   Rice,       Arroyo  Grande Prizetaker  Onion, 

G.  B.  Huston,  Jumbo  Mangel, 

ohn  A.  McGirk,  El  Monte Jumbo  Watermelon, 

ames  Moss,  Westminster Prizetaker  Onion,  yield  1  oz.  seed 8,384  Ibs. 

ames  Moss,  Prizetaker  Onion,  largest 4  Ibs.  13  oz. 

H.  V.  Young,  Arroyo  Grande Silver  Skin  Onion,  largest 4  Ibs.  2  oz. 

H.  V.  Young,        "  Mammoth  Pompeii  Onion 4  Ibs.  8  oz. 

D.  Roberts,  White  Victoria  Onion :5  Ibs.  4  oz. 

D.  Roberts,  Red  Victoria  Onion 4  Ibs.  12  oz. 

ames  Moss,  Westminster "  4  Ibs.  6  oz. 

H.  Leggett,  Oroville Burpee's  Bush  Lima  Bean 150  pods. 

W.  Robinson,  Elsinore Giant  Intermediate  Mangel 32  Ibs. 

L.  Grabel,  Table  Bluff "  "       30  Ibs. 

H.  Leggett,  Oroville Burpee's  Bush  Lima  Bean 323  pods. 

ames  Moss,  Westminster Silver  Skin  Onion 2  Ibs.  10  oz. 

ames  Moss,  White  Victoria  Onion 5  Ibs.  6^2  oz. 

ames  Moss,  Red  Victoria  Onion 4  Ibs. 

Mrs.  M.  C.  Brown,  Davis  Creek Great  Divide  Potatoes,  from  1  Ib 542  Ibs. 

G.  B.  Huston,  Arroyo  Grande Prize  Taker  Onion 1  Ib.  13  oz. 

G.  B.  Huston,     ""  "      Gibraltar  Onion 1  Ib.  15  oz. 

Mrs.  A.  J.  Hathaway,  Montalvo Prize  Taker  Onion 1  Ib.  12  oz. 

L.  Steiger,  Agua  Caliente Genuine  Mammoth  Pumpkin 187  Ibs. 

J.  H.  Leggett,  Oroville Henderson  Bush  Lima  Bean 294  pods. 

E.  Leedham,  Arroyo  Grande Marblehead  Mammoth  Cabbage 81  Ibs. 

E.  Leedham,  Warren  Cabbage 77  Ibs. 

Vegetables  for  Distant  Shipment. — A  new  phase  of  the  veg- 
etable growing  industry  of  the  state  arose  with  the  openings  of  the 
overland  railways,  but  it  developed  very  slowly  and  it  was  at  first 
marked  by  great  uncertainty  in  values,  causing  losses  as  notable 
as  profits  to  those  in  the  shipping  trade.  The  railway  freight  rate 
has  been  the  ruling  factor,  though  the  destruction  of  eastern  crops 
through  unfavorable  weather  conditions  has  sometimes  opened 
opportunities  for  shipment  from  California  in  spite  of  charges 
which  were  at  other  times  prohibitory.  The  eastern  demand  for 
some  kinds  of  vegetables  has,  however,  led  to  the  production  of 
several  important  vegetable  crops  in  very  large  volume  and  has 
thus  given  us  specialty  farming  in  vegetable  lines  somewhat  com- 
parable with  our  great  fruit  specialties.  When  this  has  occurred 
vegetable  growing  has  seemed  worthy  of  American  effort  and  our 
people  have  been  proud  to  undertake  production  by  the  car-load 
or  train-load  of  the  very  crops  which  they  would  scorn  to  think  of 
growing  by  the  wagon-load.  The  features  of  this  line  of  produc- 
tion will  appear  in  connection  with  the  discussion  of  the  special 
kinds  of  vegetables  which  are  involved  in  it. 

An  idea  of  the  importance  of  vegetable  growing  for  distant 
sale  can  be  had  from  the  following  records  of  railway  shipments  of 
fresh  vegetables  beyond  state  lines,  in  carloads  of  10  tons  each : 


VEGETABLES    FOR    SHIPMENT  17 

1906 8,982  1909 8,978 

1907 4,808  1910 ..,  7,882 

1908 .9,350  1911 13,073 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  there  are  considerable  shipments 
by  sea  from  the  port  of  San  Francisco  to  Pacific  countries — a 
movement  likely  to  be  largely  increased  by  the  opening*  of  the 
Panama  canal. 

Of  the  leading  requirements  of  vegetable  growing  for  distant 
shipment,  the  following  comments  by  S.  J.  Murdock,  of  Orange 
county,  refer  especially  to  Southern  California,  but  are,  in  a  general 
way,  applicable  to  the  whole  state: 

'The  grower  for  shipment  is  a  specialist;  he  grows  but  few  kinds,  and 
often  one  kind  only,  and  it  becomes  necessary  for  him  to  study,  the  particu- 
lar .kind  he  raises  in  all  its  forms,  not  only  as  to  selection  of  variety,  but 
to  obtain  the  very  best  strain  of  that  variety.  He  also  has  to  study  very 
closely  the  most  economical  methods  of  planting,  cultivation,  harvesting,  and 
marketing.  Location  in  many  instances  determines  what  he  shall  raise.  If 
his  land  is  warm,  dry,  and  sheltered,  he  may  raise  string  beans,  early  pep- 
pers, summer  squash,  or  early  tomatoes ;  on  heavy,  moist  land,  celery,  cab- 
bage, or  onions.  Another  locality  may  be  better  suited  for  peas  or  asparagus, 
but  you  will  not  find  one  spot  suited  to  all  of  these.  We  can,  however,  raise 
all  the  above-mentioned  vegetables  at  some  time  of  the  year  in  the  same 
locality  for  home  use  or  local  sale,  but  the  point  to  consider  for  shipment  is 
to  raise  that  vegetable  which  succeeds  best  at  the  right  time  for  shipment." 

Canned  and  Dried  Vegetables. — Another  form  in  which  our 
vegetables  are  reaching  distant  markets  in  considerable  quantities 
is  the  product  of  the  canneries,  of  which  the  record  is  given,  the 
figures  being  numbers  of  cases,  each  containing  two  dozen  2^  and 
3  Ib.  cans — the  pack  in  gallon  cans  being  reduced  to  equivalents 
and  included : 

1909.             1910.  1911. 

Asparagus     412,225           623,725  691,275 

Beans    15,975            55,530  91,240 

Peas    135,310          221,615  229,185 

Tomatoes    822,180  1,731,170  1,933,970 

Other  Vegetables   52,450           108,955  111,545 

Total  cases  1,438,140       2,740,995        3,057,215 

Thus  it  appears  that  the  product  has  more  than  doubled  in 
three  years.  A  discussion  of  vegetables  from  a  canner's  point  of 
view  will  be  given  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 


18  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

Drying  vegetables  has  been  pursued  in  a  small  way  for  a 
number  of  years,  and  was  stimulated  to  great  expectations  when 
the  Alaska  mining  interest  arose  and  packing  food  over  mouri'- 
tain  trails  was  involved,  but  whenever  transportation  routes  are 
established  the  superior  succulence  of  fresh  and  canned  vegetables 
discounts  the  dried  product. 

Value  of  California  Vegetable  Products. — To  the  California 
products  discussed  in  this  treatise  the  following  acreages  and  values 
are  assigned  by  the  Census  of  the  United  States  for  the  census  year 
1909: 

Acreage.          Farm  Value. 

Beans,    dry    158,137  $6,301,116 

Beets    78,957  4,320,532 

Peas,  dry   2,959  101,016 

Potatoes    67,688  4,879,449 

Sweet  Potatoes  -5,111  355,624 

Other  Vegetables  79,163  6,886,885 

Garden  Seeds   594,724 


Total $23,439,346 

The  total  farm  valuation  of  California's  fruits  and  fruit  pro- 
ducts is  placed  by  the  same  Census  at  $50,706,869.  Thus  appears 
the  relation  between  the  two  leading  branches  of  horticulture  in 
this  state. 

Diversity  in  Garden  Practice  in  California. — It  is  hardly  too 
much  to  say  that  our  garden  practice  is  an  epitome  of  an  ancient 
and  modern  cultural  arts,  for  we  have  both  survival  of  very  old 
methods  and  subterfuges  and  wider  demonstrations  of  the  truth  of 
advanced  conceptions  of  cultural  efficacy  than  can  probably  be 
found  in  any  other  state.  This  is  not  due  to  any  purpose  or  design 
on  the  part  of  our  people.  It  is  merely  their  notable  resources  of 
adaptability  and  ingenuity  brought  to  bear  upon  the  wide  range 
of  conditions  involved  in  our  combined  winter  and  summer  garden- 
ing which  concentrates  in  a  single  commonwealth  all  the  diversity 
one  might  encounter  if  he  were  a  peripatetic  gardener  with  an  itin- 
erary extending  from  Ireland  to  Algeria.  Nor  is  this  remark 
intended  merely  as  a  reference  to  the  natural  diversity  of  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  state,  because  success  may  require  more  or  less 
distinct  methods  in  summer  and  in  winter  in  the  same  region.  In 
short,  the  California  gardener  has  to  know  arid-land  practice  and 
humid-land  practice  and  call  them  both  into  requisition  equally  or 


REQUIREMENTS  OF  SUCCESS  19 

incline  toward  one  or  the  other  as  his  conditions  demand.  It  takes 
a  man  of  some  depth  and  breadth  to  do  this  and  this  is  the  reason 
why  land  owners  who  have  brought  skilled  horticultural  practi- 
tioners from  abroad  to  develop  their  properties  have  experienced 
so  many  disappointments.  It  requires  head  as  well  as  handicraft 
to  master  the  situation,  as  subsequent  chapters  will  suggest. 


CHAPTER    II. 

FARMER'S  GARDENS  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

It  has  already  been  admitted  that  there  has  been,  ever  since 
the  development  of  large  farming  enterprises  was  seen  to  be  pos- 
sible in  California,  an  indisposition  on  the  part  of  our  farmers  to 
engage  in  vegetable  growing.  Several  reasons  are  urged  as  ex- 
planatory of  this  very  widespread  sentiment  and  some  of  them  may 
be  cited: 

First:  the  proper  conduct  of  a  large  specialty  farm  gives  no 
time  for  gardening — not  even  for  the  direction  of  work  upon  it — 
and  it  is  better  to  buy  vegetables  than  incur  the  worry  of  a  garden 
patch. 

Second:  In  small  specialty  farming  on  a  limited  acreage  of 
especially  fitted  and  high  priced  land,  it  is  not  profitable  to  set  apart 
land  for  vegetables  when  its  yield  in  the  special  product  may  pay 
several  times  the  cost  of  purchased  vegetables. 

Third:  Success  with  vegetables  in  California  is  very  difficult 
to  attain — especially  so  in  certain  parts  of  the  state — and  a  farmer 
is  more  apt  to  lose  than  to  gain  by  any  venture  he  may  make  in 
that  line. 

Fourth:  It  is  impossible  to  have  a  garden  without  irrigation 
water,  even  on  lands  which  with  ordinary  rainfall  will  yield  cere- 
als and  carry  productive  deciduous  fruit  trees  if  they  are  given 
good  summer  cultivation. 

Hozv  Far  Are  the  Objections  Tenable? — It  must  be  granted 
that  there  is  some  force  in  the  demurrer  which  the  California 
farmer  often  enters  against  his  indictment  for  lack  of  thrift  and 
neglect  of  opportunities  in  not  undertaking  to  produce  his  home 
supply  of  fresh,  crisp  and  wholesome  vegetables  instead  of  de- 
pending upon  the  stale  and  wilted  goods  of  the  itinerant  vendors. 
It  is  perfectly  conceivable  that,  under  certain  conditions,  the  farm- 
er had  better  buy  food  supplies  rather  than  produce  them,  conse- 
quently the  general  denunciation  of  the  unthrift  of  the  California 
(20) 


WILL,    WATER   AND   WORK  21 

farmer,  which  is  often  indulged  in  by  those  who  know  little  of  the 
local  situation  and  conditions,  is  really  unwarranted.  California 
conditions,  both  in  nature  and  in  farm  policy,  are  so  varied  that 
criticisms  and  upbraidings  are  often  misplaced.  And  yet  it  is  per- 
fectly true  that  vegetables  should  be  grown  on  farms  in  Califor- 
nia much  more  generally  and  in  far  greater  variety  than  they  have 
been  hitherto.  It  is  not  the  intention  of  the  writer  to  urge  this 
improvement  upon  sentimental  considerations  nor  to  claim  as 
many  seem  inclined  to  do,  that  it  is  possible  to  compass  it  by  the 
fiat  method.  Too  many  of  our  critics  seem  to  hold  that  all  the 
farmer  has  to  do  is  to  declare  that  there  shall  be  a  garden  and 
one  will  spring  up  around  his  footsteps  with  ideal  succulence, 
richness  and  deliciousness.  It  will  be  better  to  attempt  to  show 
that  there  is  an  opportunity,  providing  its  requirements  be  duly 
met,  and  that  there  are  really  fewer  difficulties  in  the  way  and 
greater  rewards  for  prompt  and  intelligent  effort  than  many  of  our 
farmers  imagine.  And  this  can  be  shown  without  elaborate  argu- 
ment. A  more  striking  demonstration  will  probably  lie  in  showing 
to  the  many  the  success  of  the  few,  in  order  that  they  may  draw 
therefrom  lessons  and  exhortations  for  their  own  incitement  and 
success.  This  service  will  be  constantly  held  in  view  as  this  work 
proceeds. 

Essentials  to  Success  in  Gardening. — There  are  three  requi- 
sites to  success  in  gardening  and  they  may  be  arranged  in  allitera- 
tion thus,  Will,  Water,  Work.  They  also  stand  in  the  order  of 
their  relative  importance  in  California.  Without  a  strong  impulse 
in  the  will  it  is  vain  to  expect  work  and  water  to  do  their  best.  If 
the  will  is  born  of  taste,  liking,  enthusiasm,  the  task  will  be  de- 
lightful and  the  results  grand  in  every  way.  Unless  one  has  some 
joy  in  the  rich,  moist  earth  as  it  yields  its  fragrance  to  the  touch 
of  his  tools;  unless  he  can  glory  in  the  quick,  responsive  growth 
of  the  plant  when  his  culture  suits  its  nature,  and  unless  he  find 
pride  and  satisfaction  in  the  armful  of  delicious  vegetables  which 
he  brings  each  day  to  his  helpmeet,  with  the  dewdrops  of  the  early 
morning  still  sparkling  upon  their  foliage,  his  gardening  will  never 
be  an  easy  task  though  it  may  be  conscientiously  and  successfully 
discharged. 

But  although  it  is  possible  to  make  a  good  and  profitable 
garden  from  a  sense  of  duty  and  though  work  will  reach  its  due 
reward  even  though  one  can  never  bring  himself  to  see  that  the 


22  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

"primal  curse"  of  the  race  is  really  its  opportunity,  it  is  a  fact  that 
without  work  there  can  be  no  successful  gardening  in  California. 
Perhaps  work  is  the  price  of  success  everywhere;  perhaps  the 
aggregate  of  muscular  effort  proportional  to  the  result  is  less  in 
California  than  elsewhere  but  let  no  one  deceive  himself  that  the 
California  garden  will  make  itself.  The  item  of  work  may  be  re- 
duced to  a  minimum  by  intelligent  direction.  Insight  and  obser- 
vation will  teach  just  when  each  act  should  be  performed  to  secure 
the  richest  co-operative  response  from  nature's  forces,  and  to  miss 
this  advantage  will  entail  a  vast  amount  of  unnecessary  effort,  but 
the  modicum  of  incisive  action  must  be  bestowed.  It  will  appear 
later,  in  connection  with  the  discussion  of  the  planting  season, 
that  timely  work  is  a  prime  factor — in  fact  the  pivot  upon  which 
the  effort  may  turn  from  delight  to  disappointment.  California 
conditions,  though  exceedingly  generous  are  equally  exacting — 
probably  more  exacting  than  those  of  humid  climates.  It  is  clear 
then  that  not  only  is  work  an  essential,  but  it  must  be  work  well 
directed  and  maintained. 

The  third  essential  is  water.  By  due  understanding  and  em- 
ployment of  the  characters  of  the  natural  growing  season  and  of 
the  soil  in  each  locality,  it  is  possible  to  produce  a  great  wealth  and 
variety  of  vegetables  in  most  parts  of  the  state  without  irrigation. 
In  some  parts  succession  or  rotation  can  be  carried  through  the 
year  by  the  most  intelligent  cultivation  to  prevent  evaporation  or 
by  the  use  of  land  naturally  and  continuously  moistened  by  under- 
flow. Still,  the  far  greater  area  of  the  state  will  not  give  satis- 
factory vegetable  supply  without  additions  to  rainfall  and  the  irri- 
gated garden  should  therefore  be  the  end  in  view  in  most  of  ou'r 
farm  planning.  Fortunately  this  is  not  nearly  so  difficult  to  attain 
as  is  commonly  thought,  as  will  be  shown  in  a  later  chapter,  and 
if  the  farm-architect  have  the  will  to  work,  he  will  not  long  lack 
the  water  to  insure  the  perfection  of  his  desires  in  his  home  garden. 

Possible  Exceptions. — These  faint  suggestions  of  the  require- 
ments of  success  in  gardening,  even  on  the  narrow,  farm  plan, 
may  intimate  that  broadside  exhortations  to  vegetable  growing  are 
not  wise  and  shed  some  light  upon  the  reasonableness  of  those 
who  claim  that  they  can  not  profitably  or  successfully  undertake 
it.  Our  great  specialty  farmers  are  apt  to  have  their  heads  and 
hands  too  full  to  think  of  personally  mastering  gardening  prac- 
tice in  a  peculiar  country.  The  attempts  which  have  been  made 


HOME   GROWN   VEGETABLES  23 

to  transform  the  ordinary  farm  hand  into  a  gardener  have  usually 
only  yielded  disappointment,  and  the  professional  gardeners  who 
are  really  worthy  of  the  name  find  it  too  easy  to  acquire  enter- 
prises of  their  own  to  warrant  their  wage-earning  on  the  farm 
basis.  It  might  as  well  be  conceded  at  once  that  many  large  farm- 
ers will  do  better  to  purchase  their  supply  from  some  man  who 
has  the  knowledge  and  the  soil  and  water  facilities  for  successful 
production. 

It  is  also  true  that  in  many  cases  the  small  scale  specialty 
farmer,  working  a  small  tract  of  high-priced  land  for  a  high- 
value  product,  does  well  to  plant  his  entire  holding,  except  his 
house  site,  to  this  product.  But  it  is  also  true  that  other  men  of 
this  class  will  find  the  reservation  of  a  garden  area  a  most  profit- 
able proceeding.  What  each  shall  do  depends  upon  his  personal 
traits  and  tastes. 

But  though  these  exceptions  exist  and  should  be  considered 
in  any  claims  that  are  made  in  favor  of  a  much  wider  enlistment 
of  California  farmers  in  gardening  for  the  production,  at  least,  of 
home  supplies,  the  fact  remains  that  farm  gardens  should  be  mul- 
tiplied and  that,  with  proper  spirit  and  effort  and  appreciation  of 
their  value,  they  can  be  more  easily  secured  than  the  popular  im- 
pression among  California  farmers  would  indicate.  There  is  a 
wealth  of  experience  to  show  that  where  good  timely  work  is 
done,  under  conditions  either  naturally  favorable  or  rendered 
favorable  by  moderate  effort  or  investment,  very  gratifying  re- 
sults have  been  attained  on  farms  in  all  parts  of  California. 

Benefits  of  Farm  Gardens. — It  is  trite  to  build  arguments  on 
this  theme,  but  the  points  can  hardly  be  sharpened  by  comment. 
The  dietetic  benefit  of  vegetable  food  in  variety  has  been  demon- 
strated both  by  individual  experience  and  by  the  food  studie? 
which  are  now  being  systematically  pursued  both  in  this  country 
and  Europe.  Working  force,  thinking  force,  the  quality  of  suc- 
cess in  all  lines  of  human  effort,  are  all  promoted  by  a  generous, 
well-balanced  food  supply. 

The  hygienic  benefit  of  food,  including  due  amount  of  the 
succulent,  aromatic,  tonic  and  assimilable  characters  which  are 
inherent  in  fresh  and  well-grown  vegetables,  is  universally  recog- 
nized by  authorities.  The  truth  has  particular  force  in  a  region 
of  high  temperatures  like  California.  The  so-called  cooling  of  the 
blood,  the  development  of  resistance  to  malaria,  the  free  and 


24  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

healthful  operation  of  the  various  functions  of  the  body,  are  un- 
questionably promoted  by  vegetable  food. 

The  economic  benefit  of  home-grown  esculents  has  been  most 
clearly  discerned  during  the  last  few  years  and  the  result  is  a 
gratifying  increase  of  interest  in  farm  gardening.  More  vege- 
tables have  been  grown  recently  on  California  farms  than  ever 
before.  The  low  market  values  of  some  of  our  most  important 
special  products  have  given  an  impetus  to  diversification  of  crops 
which  a  century  of  exhortation  could  not  have  compassed.  Cali- 
fornia farmers  have  recognize*!  as  never  before  that  sound  farm 
policy  generally  requires  the  home  production  of  most  food  sup- 
plies. Those  who  have  endured  with  least  hardship  financial  stress 
of  beginning  a  farm  enterprise  are  those  who  have  had  least  to 
buy  and  not  those  who  had  most  to  sell.  Many  a  farm  has  been 
saved  from  the  mortgagee  by  the  yield  of  subsidiary  products  for 
home  use  and  for  exchange  for  essential  home  supplies.  In  this 
most  important  service  the  vegetable  garden  has  done  its  full  share 
and  has  thus  commended  itself  to  the  attention  of  many  who  for- 
merly looked  upon  the  growth  of  "garden  sass"  as  a  sort  of  ig- 
noble pothering.  The  farm  garden  saves  money  and  makes  money 
if  it  is  given  adequate  thought  and  generous  effort. 

This  exhortation  can  be  given  forceful  concreteness  by  the 
following  actual  instance  which  occurred  in  one  of  our  warmer 
coast  valleys : 

"My  garden  consists  of  one  acre  of  good  river  bottom  land,  and  as  a 
matter  of  course  is  under  good  tilth.  Besides  what  we  used  at  home  and 
gave  away,  we  sold  to  our  neighbors  as  follows : — 

Green  onions  $16.00  Cauliflower  $  7.00 

Spinach   4.00  Green  corn 10.50 

Early  cabbage  12.00  Squashes   8.00 

Lettuce    2.25  Tomatoes    18.00 

Beets    3.00 

Turnips   4.00  Total $84.75 

What  can  be  more  profitable?  Any  farmer  can  do  as  well  if  he  will  only 
try.  How  did  we  do  it?  I  will  tell  you.  Early  in  November  we  planted 
top  onions  on  one-half  acre,  and  on  the  other  half  we  planted  spinach,  beets, 
lettuce,  turnips,  and  carrots.  Our  seed  beds  were  made  in  December,  and 
as  soon  as  the  onions  were  ready  to  pull  we  replaced  them  with  cabbages, 
pulling  our  onions  with  regard  to  such  planting,  also  making  room  for  a 
succession  of  early  peas  and  snap  beans,  and  finally  cucumbers.  Of  the  last 
three  articles  we  sold  a  good  quantity,  and  the  product  will  raise  the  total 
amount  produced  for  the  season  to  over  $100." 


ADVANTAGE    IN    THE    CALIFORNIA    GARDEN  25 

This  is  not  an  isolated  instance.  Any  one  can  do  it  who  can 
command  the  "essentials  to  success"  previously  considered,  and 
almost  any  one  can  utterly  fail  of  doing  it  without  them.  A  hint 
is  given  of  the  succession  of  crops  possible  in  the  California  gar- 
den. There  will  be  much  of  that  hereafter. 

The  social  benefit  of  the  farm  garden  may  enter  the  realm 
of  sentiment  but  it  is  none  the  less  true,  potent  and  precious.  The 
farm  with  a  garden  is  an  inexpressibly  better  home  than  without 
it.  The  garden  wins  interest:  it  dispenses  content.  It  awakens 
home  pride  and  strengthens  home  love.  It  has  actual  educational 
value  in  that  it  directly  imparts  useful  lessons  in  plant  growth 
and  requirements  which  are  applicable  to  all  other  farm  opera- 
tions. It  has  lessons  also  to  quicken  the  love  of  the  beautiful 
which,  in  turn,  leads  in  all  phases  of  home  improvement  and 
lifts  the  standard  of  rural  manhood  and  womanhood. 

Of  Especial  Applicability  to  California. — All  these  benefits  of 
the  installation  of  a  garden  area  on  the  farm  should  be  especially 
striven  for  in  California  because  they  can  be  realized  here  in  ex- 
ceptional measure.  The  well-planned  California  garden  is  ever- 
green. It  admits  of  succession  and  rotation  within  the  year,  so 
that  a  twelve  month  is  the  producing  equivalent  of  twice  or  thrice 
its  duration  in  wintry  climates.  Here  the  garden  does  not  insist 
upon  intruding  its  claims  just  in  the  "rush  of  spring  work"  which 
is  known  in  lands  of  more  marked  seasonal  transitions.  It  is  well 
content  to  be  "ahead  of  the  rush"  the  whole  year  round,  but  it 
must  be  admitted  that  it  stubbornly  rebels  against  being  behind  it. 
Not  only  is  succession  of  tender  growths  made  possible  by  the  long 
frostless  term  but  more  than  half  of  the  common  garden  vegeta- 
bles are  so  hardy  that  they  maintain  growth  even  through  our 
short  frosty  season  and,  with  irrigation  on  lands  which  need  it, 
thrive  the  whole  year  in  the  open  air.  Rich  is  the  endowment 
which  a  semi-tropical  climate  bestows  upon  the  gardener.  He  who 
does  not  avail  himself  of  it  for  his  own  comfort  and  profit,  buries 
his  talent  into  the  earth. 

The  Garden  in  Mixed  Farming. — During  the  last  few  years, 
aside  from  the  greater  interest  in  vegetable  growing  on  the  part 
of  the  settlers,  which  has  been  noted,  there  has  been  a  decided 
gain  through  the  efforts  of  newer  residents  to  make  their  smaller 
holdings  self-supplying  and  income-yielding,  as  well,  by  due  at- 
tention to  vegetable  growing.  All  through  the  state,  but  espe- 


26  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

cially  in  Southern  California,  the  interest  has  quickened  and  the  ac- 
complishment has  shown  that  the  old  idea  that  only  special,  narrow 
areas  were  suited  to  garden  locations,  was  a  misconception.  In- 
stances are  ample  to  show  not  only  that  proper  practice  brings 
ample  success  almost  everywhere,  but  such  practice,  coupled  with 
intelligent  planning,  yields  such  variety  of  delicious  esculents  as 
only  a  semi-tropical  climate  allows.  This  is  one  of  the  distinctive 
advantages  of  California  and  it  favors  the  development  of  small 
farms  of  mixed  husbandry  as  well  as  those  devoted  to  specialties. 
Of  course  there  are  limitations  and  locations  should  be  selected 
with  discrimination  for  either  mixed  or  special  farming.  The 
mixed  farm  in  an  ever-growing  climate  makes  requirements  it  is 
true  but  it  also  bestows  compensations.  As  the  forces  ministering 
to  growth  are  continuously  active,  the  full  use  of  them  bespeaks 
corresponding  activity  on  the  part  of  man.  There  must  be  a  de- 
termination to  make  almost  every  moment  tell  in  some  .useful 
effort.  There  will  be  play  for  the  sharpest  ingenuity  in  devising 
means  and  methods  for  time-saving  and  ceaseless  study  to  make 
the  soil  bear  the  burden  of  the  table  to  the  fullest  degree.  Small 
farming  requires  genius,  devotion,  and  a  spirit  of  content.  Its 
work,  when  one  acquires  or  is  born  with  a  liking  for  it,  is  full  of 
cheer  and  enjoyment.  Its  varied  nature  is  itself  a  charm.  The 
trees,  vines,  plants,  and  domestic  animals  will  rise  almost  to  the 
plane  of  companionship.  Man,  wife  and  children  will  join  in  the 
spirit  of  the  enterprise  they  are  carrying  on  with  united  heart  and 
hand,  and  love  for  home  will  grow  and  blossom  forth  as  it  seldom 
does  in  mansions  or  on  princely  estates.  Thus  the  modest  calling 
has  its  compensations. 

The  influence  of  such  homes  upon  the  state  is  most  salutary. 
Sound  ideas  of  economy  become  prevalent;  honor  and  honesty 
are  qualities  which  win  popular  approval.  Thus,  the  state  be- 
comes really  prosperous  and  sound  at  the  core.  The  crowning 
need  of  California  agriculture  is  to  build  up  enterprises  which 
will  stand  alone.  We  have  been  leaning  too  long  on  the  shoulders 
of  bankers  and  commission  merchants  and  commanders  of  coun- 
try stores.  Without  them  it  is  true  much  that  has  been  done  could 
not  have  been  accomplished,  but  it  is  also  true  that  many  losing- 
efforts  which  have  been  vainly  put  forth,  would  never  have  been 
attempted,  and  those  who  have  made  these  efforts  would  be  the 
better  for  it.  Who  can  tell  how  many  would  have  attained  mod- 


THE  GARDEN  AND  THE  HOME  27 

erate  and  comfortable  successes  if  they  had  started  without  en- 
cumbrance on  a  modest  plan  instead  of  wasting  time  with  big 
schemes  .whose  whole  returns  have  gone  to  feed  hungry  mortgages 
and  interest  accounts,  until  failure  has  swept  from  them  the  prop- 
erty which  they  proudly  hoped  to  possess? 

But  why  intrude  this  homily?  The  garden  is  one  of  the  ele- 
ments of  success  in  mixed  farming.  Around  it  other  elements 
naturally  gather.  As  gleaners  and  profitable  transformers  of  gar- 
den wastes  and  surpluses  into  home  supplies  and  garden  restora- 
tives, the  cow,  the  pig,  and  the  hen  await  outside  the  garden 
fence.  Be  sure  to  keep  them  there,  and  the  garden  will  be  a  liberal 
contributor  to  their  vigor  and  productiveness. 


CHAPTER    III. 

CALIFORNIA   CLIMATE  AS   RELATED  TO  VEGETABLE 

GROWING. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  attempt  an  elaborate  exposition  of  the 
characters  of  the  California  climate.  Such  characterization  has 
been  made  by  different  authorities  from  various  points  of  view. 
It  may  be  claimed  in  a  general  way  that  our  climates  are  as  kindly 
disposed  toward  vegetable  growth  as  they  are  towards  the  devel- 
opment of  fruits  or  the  early  maturity,  thrift  and  comfort  of 
animals.  The  ordinary  exemption  from  ground-freezing  at  any 
time  of  the  year;  the  absence  of  very  rare  and  localized  occur- 
rence of  soil-shifting  winds  or  even  of  winds  to  prostrate  tall 
growths;  freedom  from  wide  extremes  in  temperature;  and  only 
occasionally  great  changes  in  atmospheric  humidity;  adequate  heat 
for  rapid  growth  with  a  dry,  but  seldom  desiccating  air,  which 
prevents  much  of  the  fungous  growth  of  hot,  humid  climates  and 
consequently  insures  a  grand  and  healthy  leaf-action  to  the  plant ; 
abundant  sunshine,  but  seldom,  and  then  only  in  few  localities, 
rising  to  leaf  burning;  ample  moisture  either  by  rainfall  or  irriga- 
tion, or  one  supplementing  the  other — all  these  characters  and 
others  like  them,  constitute  a  climate  of  exceptional  advantage 
to  the  vegetable  grower.  They  reduce  provisions  for  protection 
to  a  minimum;  a  cloud  of  smoke  for  the  frost;  a  high  fence  or  a 
line  of  trees  for  the  wind,  a  lath  or  slight  brush  covering  or  the 
neighborly  shadow  of  a  taller  growth  for  the  most  tender  foliage; 
frequent  cultivation  to  retain  moisture  in  the  soil  after  rain  or  irri- 
gation, and  the  garden  will  go  through  the  year  with  ample  pro- 
tection at  its  weakest  points.  And  all  these  are  not  needed  in  the 
same  locality;  in  fact  some  localities  need  none  of  them  except  the 
moisture  retention  which  is  universal. 

Autumnal  and  Vernal  Springtimes. — Spring  is  defined  as  "the 
one  of  the  four  seasons  when  plants  begin  to  grow,"  and  California 
is  fortunate  in  doubling  the  blessings  of  springtime  which  most 

(28.) 


BEGINNING  OF  THE   CROP  YEAR  29 

parts  of  the  world  enjoy.  First  there  is  the  autumnal  springtime 
which  follows  the  heat  in  the  interior  valleys,  bringing  a  delicious 
coolness  to  the  early  morning  and  crystal  clearness  to  the  atmos- 
phere which  reveals  the  distant  mountain  tops  with  a  sharpness 
which  their  outlines  do  not  often  reveal  through  the  haze  of  sum- 
mer. There  is  also  the  autumnal  springtime  in  the  coast  regions, 
which  brings  a  little  higher  heat  because  the  arrest  of  ocean  winds 
gives  the  declining  sun  opportunity  to  warm  the  earth  as  even  the 
vertical  sun  of  midsummer  could  not  do  because  of  the  screen  of 
summer  fogs  which  the  landward  winds  interposed.  These  two 
manifestations,  differing  in  effects  upon  the  coast  and  in  the  inte- 
rior, are  simply  phases  of  one  seasonal  change  and  mark  the  ap- 
proach of  the  autumnal  springtime  in  California,  the  beginning  of  a 
new  growing  season,  the  advent  of  another  crop-year — reminding 
the  California  ruralist  of  new  duties  and  announcing  new  oppor- 
tunities to  one  who  understands  the  superlative  advantage  in 
California  of  beginning  early  and  keeping  everlastingly  at  it  to  get 
the  most  from  the  land  and  from  his  own  labor. 

Of  course  California  has  also  the  delights  of  the  true  vernal 
springtime,  marked  by  the  change  from  the  short,  dark  days  of 
the  rainy  season,  to  the  more  abundant  light  and  heat  of  the  drier 
months ;  a  season  of  blossoms  and  flowers  and  of  activity  of  the 
tenderer  plants,  when  the  "rare  days  of  June"  appear  in  the  Cali- 
fornia March  and  April.  Of  the  two  California  springtimes 
which  attend  the  equinoxes,  the  one  of  September  is  the  greater  in 
agricultural  and  horticultural  significance  because  it  is  really  the 
beginning  of  the  crop-year  and  because  timely  work  then  gives 
success  with  plants  which  make  their  returns  during  the  winter 
and,  besides  that,  it  insures  the  best  results  with  other  plants  which 
yield  their  rewards  in  the  dry  season  which  lies  beyond.  The  delicious 
September  weather  with  us  is  not,  therefore,  an  outholding  of 
cheer  to  encourage  one  to  endure  an  approaching  winter  but  a  fore- 
taste of  the  delights  of  a  rainy  season  which,  except  during  actual 
storms,  is  a  time  of  plowing  and  sowing,  planting  and  pruning  and 
of  other  fundamental  operations  which  underlie  the  success  of  the 
year.  The  March  springtime,  on  the  other  hand,  opens  the  way 
to  the  haste  of  haying  and  harvest,  the  distress  of  late  plantings  in 
high  heat  for  which  they  have  no  proper  rooting,  unless  the  grower 
comes  to  their  relief  with  cultivation  as  their  needs  require.  The 
September  springtime  looks  to  a  beginning  and  the  March  spring- 


30  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

time  to  a  finish  of  the  year — so  far  as  a  finish  can  come  to  a  year 
which  is  action  from  end  to  end. 

Geographical  Distribution  of  Production. — According  to  the 
United  States  census  of  1910  the  plants  generally  classified  as 
vegetables,  and  which  are  included  in  this  treatise,  yielded  value 
to  the  grower  of  half  a  million  or  more  in  ten  California  counties, 
as  follows: 

Alameda    $   841,885  San  Joaquin    $2,683,277* 

Contra  Costa   1,230,155*  San  Luis  Obispo  659,137 

Los  Angeles   1,473,521  Santa  Barbara   1,114,113 

Orange 1,194,627  Santa  Clara 715,730 

Sacramento    914,374*  Ventura   2,773,687 

Of  the  foregoing  counties  seven  are  in  Coast  valleys  and  three 
(marked  *)  are  interior  valley  lowlands,  so  far  as  their  vegetable 
products  are  involved. 

LOCAL    VARIATIONS    IN    CLIMATE. 

Although  it  is  possible  to  grow  almost  all  vegetables  every- 
where in  the  state  by  intelligently  selecting  the  proper  time  of  the 
year  for  each,  which  will  be  shown  later,  and  although  a  few  local- 
ities have  climates  so  uniform  and  equable  that  by  providing  proper 
moisture  conditions  nearly  all  vegetables  can  be  grown  all  the  year, 
it  is  still  possible  to  define  regions  with  somewhat  distinctive  cli- 
matic characters  bearing  upon  garden  and  field  growth  of  edible 
plants. 

Coast  Valleys. — The  greatest  volume  of  vegetable  products  of 
California  is  at  present  grown  in  the  coast  valleys.  This  term 
includes  both  well-defined  valleys  of  greater  or  less  breadth,  and 
stretches  of  rather  flat  or  gently  sloping  land,  open  to  ocean  in- 
fluences. It  is  a  region  extending  the  whole  length  of  the  state  and 
lying  between  the  highest  elevation  of  the  Coast  Range  and  the 
ocean.  In  the  upper  half  of  the  state  it  is  composed  chiefly  of  well- 
defined  valleys  somewhat  parallel  to  the  coast,  but  protected  by 
low  ranges  which  modify  and  mollify  ocean  influences,  insuring 
higher  temperature  and  more  gentle  winds  than  are  found  directly 
on  the  coast.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  state  the  region  chiefly 
consists  of  broad  areas  quite  open  to  the  ocean  but  needing  110 
barriers  from  it  because,  owing  to  the  trend  of  the  coast,  the  lower 
latitude  and  the  greater  distance  south  from  the  source  of  the 
prevailing  air  currents,  the  ocean  influences  are  themselves  modified 


THE   INTERIOR   LOWLANDS  31 

before  they  reach  the  lands.  In  all  this  vast  region,  then,  similar 
conditions  prevail,  locally  modified,  however,  enough  to  create  some 
marked  differences  in  degree,  which  have  been  well  utilized  as  the 
basis  of  special  production.  Temperature  rises  and  rainfall  de- 
creases as  you  proceed  southward.  And  yet  though  these  differ- 
ences may  notably  localize  production,  the  whole  coast  region  north 
and  south  has  this  in  common;  it  has  a  more  equable  and  lower 
temperature  and  a  more  generous  rainfall  than  the  interior  valley 
at  its  own  latitude ;  it  also  has  lighter  frosts,  growing  lighter  still  to- 
ward the  south  until  it  incloses  regions  here  and  there  which  favoring 
topography  makes  practically  frostless.  Such  situations  favor  all- 
the-year  growth  of  the  tenderest  vegetables,  and  perennial  beans 
and  tomato  trees  are  possible.  The  coast  region  of  the  state  is,  as 
stated  above,  the  chief  vegetable-producing  region. 

Interior.  Lowlands. — The  region  next  in  importance  in  vege- 
table production  comprises  the  lower  lands  of  the  interior  valleys. 
They  lie  along  the  two  great  rivers  of  the  northern  and  central 
parts  of  California — the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  and  their 
tributaries.  These  rivers  flow  from  nearly  two  hundred  miles, 
north  and  south  of  their  confluence,  where  they  mingle  their  waters 
through  numerous  sloughs  until  the  joint  streams  pour  through 
a  gap  in  the  coast  range  into  San  Francisco  bay.  The  same  gap 
which  lets  out  the  waters  lets  in  the  ocean  current  of  moisture- 
laden  wind  and  moderates  the  heat  of  the  entire  interior  valley, 
but  naturally  dispenses  most  moisture,  and  coolness  over  the  low- 
lands whidi  lie  just  in  its  course  as  it  rushes  northward  and  south- 
ward to  displace  the  air  which  is  rarified  by  the  sun  heat  on  the 
interior  plains  of  the  great  valley.  These  interior  lowlands  along 
the  lower  stretches  of  the  rivers  have  then  an  interior  climate  modi- 
fied by  the  intrusion  from  the  coast,  but  this  only  acts  in  full  meas- 
ure during  June,  July  and  August.  It  acts,  therefore,  as  a  mod- 
erator of  heat  and  drought  during  that  period  and  supplements  the 
supply  of  aqueous  vapor  which  rises  by  evaporation  from  the 
immense  acreage  of  tule  swamps  and  shallow  lakes  which  surround 
the  tillable  lands  of  the  region.  Climatic  conditions  in  this  large 
interior  area  favor  the  growth  of  vegetables  and  its  producing 
capacity  is  beyond  any  present  commercial  use  which  can  be  made 
of  it.  But  though  it  has  a  temporary  coast  modification,  as  has  been 
stated,  it  falls  back  into  interior  habits  when  restraint  is  removed. 
It  has  intervals  of  hot,  dry  winds  which  exclude  the  coast  winds 


32  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

• 

from  access  to  the  valley  and  then  intense  dry  heat  calls  for  ample 
water  supply,  which,  fortunately,  however,  is  easily  applied,  because 
at  such  season  the  rivers  and  sloughs  are  running  full  and  if  seep- 
age is  not  enough,  siphons  or  flood-gates  admit  water  from  the 
high-running  rivers,  or  pumps  yield  great  volumes  at  little  cost. 
But  the  interior  lowlands  have  another  more  grievous  trait.  As 
they  lie  very  low  they  are  the  scenes  of  the  latest  spring  and  earliest 
autumn  frosts  and  their  season  for  tender  vegetables  is  shorter 
than  that  of  the  coast,  though  with  their  higher  heat  and  copious 
moisture  their  mid-season  product  of  these  tender  crops  may  out- 
volume  a  slower,  longer  season  on  the  coast.  But  the  earliest  and 
the  latest  tender  vegetables  do  not  come  from  the  interior  lowlands. 
There  are  interior  lowlands  of  wonderful  producing  capacity 
at  considerable  distances  from  the  confluence  of  the  two  rivers  just 
mentioned.  For  about  three  hundred  miles  the  river  lands  extend 
both  northward  and  southward,  offering  an  area  of  moist  or  easily 
irrigated  land  of  such  fertility  and  extent  that  it  suggests  its  own 
ability  to  produce  vegetables  for  the  whole  country.  At  present 
hardly  an  appreciable  fraction  of  one  per  cent  of  it  is  employed  in 
production  for  which  it  is  best  fitted.  In  the  future  its  lower  levels 
will  be  the  Holland  and  its  upper  extensions  the  Nile  valley  of 
California.  The  farther  these  lowlands  lie  from  the  mouths  of  the 
rivers  the  less  they  receive  of  coast  influences.  This  gives  the  dis- 
tant lowlands  a  higher  temperature  and  greater  forcing  power  upon 
vegetation.  The  nights  are  warm  as  well  as  the  days.  Vegetables 
of  prodigious  size  and  acre-crops  which  tax  credulity,  are  the  result 
of  the  favoring  conditions.  But  these  lands  are  low  and  danger  of 
frost  makes  it  necessary  to  select  crops  for  hardiness  during  a  part 
of  the  year. 

Interior  Plains  and  Foothills. — Above  and  away  from  the  low- 
lands of  the  rivers  and  their  deltas  the  interior  plains  stretch  far  as 
the  eye  can  reach,  and  rise,  both  on  the  east  and  west,  into  the  foot- 
hills of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  coast  ranges.  In  Southern  Cal- 
ifornia somewhat  similar  regions  occur  as  the  lands  rise  from  the 
coast  flats  to  the  mesas  and  foothills  of  the  high,  incurved  mountain 
range.  There  are  similar  climatic  conditions  prevailing  through 
these  vast  interior  regions  both  north  and  south.  The  rainfall  is 
light  as  compared  with  the  coast  until  the  mountain  climate  is  en- 
countered at  varying  elevations,  when  it  becomes  even  greater  than 
on  the  coast.  The  mean  temperature  is  higher  and,  except  in  certain 


GARDENS    ON    THE    PLAINS  33 

localities,  the  frosts  cover  a  shorter  period  and  are  less  severe. 
Winter  growth  of  vegetables  is  widely  feasible  and  plants  of  less 
hardihood  than  those  of  the  lowlands  are  usually  safe.  But  the  rains 
cease  earlier  in  the  spring  and  heat  and  drought  make  irrigation 
essential  long  before  it  is  required  below.  For  summer  growth  of 
vegetables,  except  on  small  areas  moistened  by  underflow  from 
mountain  springs  or  valley  cienegas,  irrigation  must  be  provided. 
These  are  the  regions  which  are  most  apt  to  be  condemned  as  unfit 
for  vegetable  growing,  and  it  is  upon  such  lands  that  most  failures 
and  disappointments  occur.  It  is  true  that  local  climatic  conditions 
here  need  most  radical  modification  by  art  of  man,  but  it  is  here 
also  that  prompt  and  timely  work  and  adequate  irrigation,  wind 
protection  and  partial  shade  win  their  greatest  victories.  There  is 
really  no  reason  why  the  energetic,  enterprising  man  should  hesitate 
for  a  moment  about  undertaking  preparation  for  his  home  supply 
of  vegetables.  Commercial  undertakings  in  vegetable  growing  may 
have  to  be  confined  to  few  plants  grown  just  at  the  right  moment, 
but  even  a  small  water  supply  with  ample  will  and  work  will  give 
a  full  variety  for  the  family  table. 

At  certain  elevations  on  the  mesas  and  foothills  of  the  interior 
valley,  sheltered  by  local  topography,  are  practically  frostless  regions 
with  ample  winter  rains  where  winter  growth  is  so  fostered  that  the 
earliest  vegetables  as  well  as  the  earliest  fruits  are  produced.  Some 
tender  vegetables  may  be  ready  for  the  table  on  the  higher  location 
before  it  is  safe  to  plant  the  seed  on  the  lower  level.  And  the  two 
situations  may  be  in  full  sight  of  each  other.  It  is  a  fact  that  in 
small  valleys  of  the  foothills  late  and  early  frosts,  sharp  and  destruc- 
tive, may  be  more  prevalent  than  on  the  lowlands  of  the  broad  valley 
below,  while  on  the  slopes  above  them  tender  plants  may  be  safe. 

Irrigated  Desert  Valleys. — During  the  last  decade  a  new  region 
with  distinctly  different  characteristics  and  capacities  has  become 
prominent  and  has  achieved  notable  development.  It  includes  val- 
leys east  of  the  high  mountains  in  Southern  California  and  com- 
prises the  extreme  southeast  area  of  the  state,  and  is  largely  the 
ancient  flood  plain  of  the  Colorado  river,  whose  deep  alluvial  soils  are 
now  irrigated  by  waters  from  the  river  which  originally  made  them.  It 
is  known  as  the  Imperial  Valley,  and  has  tributaries,  like  the  Coa- 
chella  Valley,  etc.  It  is  distinctly  the  earliest  region  of  the  state, 
being  wholly  excluded  from  coast  influences  and  having  the  advan- 
tage of  vernal  heat  from  its  south  latitude,  which  comes  so  early 


34  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

that  it  practically  banishes  winter  from  the  list  of  the  seasons.  Such 
conditions  have  favored  the  development  of  a  canteloupe  industry 
which  markets  its  product  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States  before 
any  other  region  can  enter  into  competition  with  it.  The  growth  of 
winter  cabbage  is  also  largely  undertaken  and  other  early  vegetables 
and  fruits  are  produced  to  the  extent  justified  by  the  market  demand. 
As  the  season  advances,  however,  its  adaptability  to  the  growth  of 
succulents  becomes  restricted  to  those  which  can  endure  high  heat 
and  resist  desiccation  by  desert  winds  which  occasionally  prevail. 
Mountain  Valleys. — Among  the  mountain  peaks  and  ridges 
from  three  thousand  feet  upward  are  slopes  and  valleys  which  are 
very  productive  of  vegetables.  As  elevation  increases  wintry  fea- 
tures become  intensified  and  range  of  winter  grqwth  less  and  less 
until  in  the  true  "mountain  valleys,"  which  lie  among  the  summits 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  the  winter  is  a  closed  season  of  snow  and  ice 
and  the  garden  becomes  a  summer  affair  as  in  the  eastern  states. 
Growth,  however,  during  the  open  season  is  very  rapid  and  satis- 
factory, moisture  is  abundant  and  irrigation  facilities  ample  in  the 
abundant  supplies  of  snow  waters  from  above,  which  need  however 
to  be  moderated  in  temperature  before  distribution.  In  this  region 
gardening  seasons  and  practices  are  more  comparable  with  eastern 
policies  and  methods  and  are  not  characteristically  Calif ornian  as 
the  term  is  usually  understood. 


GENERAL  CHARACTERS  OF  CALIFORNIA  CLIMATE. 

The  proper  conclusion  from  the  foregoing  discussion  is  that 
each  California  locality  must  be  separately  studied  to  determine  its 
climatic  adaptations  for  vegetable  growing  and  its  season  for  the 
best  discharge  of  the  various  gardening  duties.  Although,  as  will 
appear  from  time  to  time  all  through  this  treatise,  very  few  general 
prescriptions  such  as  are  popular  as  "gardening  calendars,"  "work 
for  the  month,"  etc.,  in  regions  of  less  climatic  diversity,  can  be 
given  as  a  guide  to  work  in  this  state,  still  there  are  some  generaliza- 
tions concerning  leading  climatic  features  as  related  to  vegetable 
growing  which  may  be  of  assistance  to  distant  readers  or  newcomers. 

Relative  Occurrences  of  Cloudiness  and  Sunshine  in  California 
Regions. — Due  proportion  of  sunlight,  warmth  and  moisture  is  nec- 
essary to  produce  quick  and  healthy  vegetation.  Cloudiness  is  also 
an  important  element,  since  the  presence  of  clouds  screens  the  earth 


SUNSHINE   AND   CLOUDINESS  35 

and  diminishes  the  heat  received  by  vegetation  from  the  direct  rays 
of  the  sun.  So  also,  acting  as  a  screen,  it  prevents  in  a  measure  the 
radiation  of  heat  from  the  earth  into  space,  and  this  materially  tends 
to  modify  and  reduce  the  daily  range  of  temperature,  so  that  grow- 
ing vegetation  is  not  subject  to  as  great  cold  as  would  otherwise 
obtain  during  the  night,  nor  on  the  other  hand,  does  it  receive  the 
full  amount  of  solar  heat  by  day. 

The  average  percentage  of  sunshine  by  seasons,  with  the  aver- 
age number  of  actually  clear  days,  is  as  follows  for  the  stations 
named,  as  deduced  from  the  records  of  the  United  States  Weather 
Bureau  for  a  number  of  years : 


TABLE  OF  CLOUDS  AND  SUNSHINE  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

Winter.  Spring.  Summer.  Autumn. 

^  c'        £.<  •«  c          2.<  "o  e         2.<  "Off        a< 

1^3  n  n  lij  3  fto  q  3      •     f&  rc  i^  3  n  n 

8  IT.         n£  %*'.          ^  £  8  §*.         *  Jjj  8S;         "3 

STATIONS.  2g'       g-n>          25'       §•«          2-5'       g-o          25'      g-« 

n  f?  ?  "  ?  ?  *  ?  ?  l? 

Eureka     52  12  50  \2  72  21  64  33 

San  Francisco   53  35  57  *38  57  29  65  42 

Los  Angeles  66  49  56  36  69  39  75  54 

San  Diego  61  37  51  26  54  24  63  38 

Red  Bluff   55  38  62  42  88  80  78  70 

Sacramento  63  39  69  52  93  85  82  68 

Keeler   74  60  76  61  88  79  84  74 

Fresno    55  31  66  51  93  85  85  65 

Many  useful  deductions  may  be  drawn  from  the  above  compil- 
ation. It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  weather  con- 
ditions most  favorable  for  vegetable  growing  are  in  some  respects 
different  from  those  which  minister  to  the  perfection  of  fruits. 
The  fruit  tree,  with  its  roots  deep  in  a  moist  soil,  welcomes  high 
heat  to  mature  its  fruit.  The  perfection  of  the  esculent  falls  far 
short  of  the  maturity  of  the  plant  and  lies  mainly  in  the  measure  and 
tenderness  of  foliage,  stem,  immature  fruit  or  fleshy  root.  These 
are  usually  best  attained  at  a  degree  of  heat  less  than  required  for 
fruit  ripening.  Again  edible  plants  as  compared  with  trees  are 
shallow-rooting  and  suffer  in  a  very  hot  surface  soil  which  a  tree 
escapes  by  penetration  of  tfie  subsoil.  The  growth  of  winter  vege- 
tables is  advanced  by  abundant  sunshine  during  the  rainy  season: 


36  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

the  growth  of  summer  vegetables  is  promoted  by  cloud-screen  from 
excessive  sun  heat,  and  it  is  clearly  refreshed  by  a  summer  fog. 
Herein,  in  part  at  least,  lies  the  explanation  why  the  earliest  vege- 
tables come  from  moderately  elevated  interior  regions  (except  as 
already  noted  for  interior  irrigated  desert  valleys)  and. the  main 
crop  of  midseason  and  late  vegetables  is  to  be  sought  in  regions 
whose  climate  is  modified  by  cool  coast  winds,  which  sometimes 
carry  fogs  and  always  temper  sun  action  by  their  content  of  insensi- 
ble aqueous  vapor.  Some  plants  are  especially  responsive  to  this 
action  of  coast  breezes.  Lima  beans  on  the  Ventura  coast  are  some- 
times rescued  from  failure  through  deficient  rainfall,  by  days  of 
cool,  misty  breezes  from  the  adjacent  ocean.  The  same  is  true  in 
varying  degrees  of  all  vegetation  and  the  fact  is  often  of  very  great 
economic  importance  to  California. 

Distribution  of  Rainfall. — The  local  rainfall  throughout  the 
state  has  of  course  about  the  same  relation  to  local  gardening  as  it 
has  to  other  farm  work,  but  it  seems  hardly  necessary  to  discuss  it 
in  this  place,  because  it  is  possible  now  to  secure  the  data  from 
different  sources.  Local  observers  almost  everywhere  can  furnish 
the  facts.  It  is  however  pertinent  to  present  a  general  compilation 
which  fixes  approximately  the  date  at  which  effective  rains  may  be 
expected  in  e~ach  main  division  of  the  state  and  thus  impart  a  some- 
what definite  notion  of  when  the  natural  season  of  growth  will  be- 
gin. All  should  be  in  readiness  beforehand  to  seize  upon  this  oppor- 
tunity for  soil  working,  if  one  is  to  proceed  without  irrigation,  and 
for  the  planting  of  seeds  of  hardy  vegetables  which  will  withstand 
the  local  winter  temperature  and  give  the  earliest  readiness  for  use 
under  the  circumstances. 

When  the  First  Rains  May  Be  Expected. — The  rainfall  at  San 
Francisco  is  very  close  to  the  mean  between  the  heavy  and  light 
rainfall  of  the  state;  hence  it  represents  very  largely  the  whole 
state.  Considering  the  record  of  the  United  States  Weather  Ob- 
server, it  is  found  by  Mr.  Page  that  during  a  twenty-five  year  period 
ending  in  1895,  the  average  date  of  first  0.05  of  an  inch  of  rainfall 
occurs  by  September  17.  Considering  June  30  as  the  official  end  of 
one  season  and  July  1  the  commencement  of  the  next  season,  the 
earliest  date  of  0.05  of  an  inch  of  rain  is  July  8,  1885,  and  the  latest 
October  27,  1875— that  is,  from  July  1  to  October  27,  1875,  onlv 
0.05  of  an  inch  of  rain  fell.  As  0.05  of  an  inch  of  rain  is  such  a 
small  amount,  it  has  been  deemed  best  to  consider  that  when  one- 


OPENING  OF  RAINY  SEASON  37 

quarter  (0.25)  of  an  inch  of  rain  has  fallen  that  date  be  considered 
the  commencement  of  the  rainy  season.  Using  this  then  as  a  basis, 
we  find  that  the  rainy  season  begins  on  October  8.  The  earliest 
date  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch  is  September  8,  1884,  and  the  latest 
not  until  November  23,  1880. 

As  one-quarter  of  an  inch  of  rainfall  at  San  Francisco  is  hardly 
sufficient  to  allow  of  rainfall  over  the  southern  portion  of  the  state 
a  basis  of  one  inch  at  San  Francisco  was  considered  for  the  southern 
portion  as  the  commencement  of  the  rains  there,  and  this  is  found 
to  be  November  1.  The  earliest  date  of  one  inch  of  rain  is  Septem- 
ber 15,  1888,  and  the  latest  December  3,  1890. 

One  inch  of  rainfall  at  San  Francisco  is  not  sufficient  for  the 
interior  of  the  state  to  allow  of  good  plowing  and  seeding;  hence 
a  total  of  two  inches  at  San  Francisco  was  considered,  and  it  is 
found  that  two  inches  of  rain  falls  at  San  Francisco  up  to  November 
1 ;  hence  that  date  can  be  said  to  be  the  date  of  commencement  of 
good  plowing. 

Five  inches  is  considered  as  the  rainy  season  being  here  in  full 
effect,  and  it  is  found  that  five  inches  does  not  fall  before  December 
15,  and  that  the  earliest  date  that  five  inches  has  fallen  is  October 
21,  1889,  and  the  latest  February  5,  1891.  In  this  latter  season 
February  was  very  wet,  and  the  total  for  the  season  was  seventeen 
fifty-eight  hundredths  inches. 

To  summarize,  we  have  first  rains  September  17;  rainy  season 
begins  October  8,  and  in  southern  portion  of  state  November  1 ; 
ground  moistened  for  plowing  November  13,  and  rainy  season  in 
full  effect  December  15.  Of  course  there  will  be  occasionally  a  year 
in  which  a  good  fall  of  rain  may  come  earlier  and  planters  should 
always  be  ready  to  take  advantage  of  the  first  deep-moistening  of  the 
soil  to  start  plants  which  thrive  in  our  autumn  temperatures. 

The  Occurrence  of  Frosts  in  California. — The  occurrence  of 
frost  in  California  is,  from  one  point  of  view,  a  purely  local  ques- 
tion. As  has  already  been  stated,  the  frosty  and  the  frostless  places 
are  often  in  sight  of  each  other  on  the  same  landscape  from  the 
same  point  of  view.  It  can  be  even  more  closely  drawn  than  that. 
It  is  sometimes  quite  as  plainly  to  be  seen  as  the  high-water  line  of 
a  river  flood  on  a  sloping  meadow.  This  occurs  of  course  in  what 
are  termed  the  thermal  belts  and  is  determined  by  elevation,  air 
currents,  outflow  levels  and  several  other  incidents  of  local  topog- 
raphy. There  are  often  wide  variations  in  these  lines  from  year  to 


38  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

year  and  yet  there  is  steadfastness  enough  about  the  phenomena  to 
enable  residents  to  agree  among  themselves  as  to  what  localities 
are  "in  the  frost"  and  what  are  out  of  it.  Upon  this  decision  de- 
pends the  business  risk  in  planting  out  beans,  peppers,  tomatoes, 
etc.,  for  winter  growth,  and  it  is  upon  such  fields  that  the  frost, 
not  always  content  with  the  local  definition  of  its  limits,  draws  the 
dead  line  which  the  morning  sun  brings  into  such  fateful  promi- 
nence. Of  course  the  grower  is  not  necessarily  content  to  accept 
such  natural  boundaries  of  the  thermal  belt.  He  can  materially 
change  it  all  by  frost-fighting,  but  the  discussion  of  that  matter 
belongs  to  another  chapter. 

It  is  important  to  know  as  nearly  as  possible  the  beginning 
and  end  of  the  frost  free  period  in  each  locality,  and  data  to  assist  in 
determining  this  fact  are  given  in  the  chapter  on  the  Planting 
Season. 

COMMERCIAL  VALUE   OF   THE   CALIFORNIA    CLIMATE. 

It  is  a  striking  fact  that  winter  storage  of  fresh  vegetables  is  not 
necessary  in  California.  The  mild  California  winter  does  not  freeze 
hardy  vegetables,  consequently  they  are  allowed  to  grow  until  the 
shipping  season  arrives,  as  in  the  case  of  celery,  cabbage,  parsnips, 
salsify,  etc.,  or  are  gathered,  sacked  and  placed  under  some  cheap 
shelter  from  the  rains,  as  in  the  case  of  potatoes,  beets,  carrots,  etc. 
No  storage  pits  or  cellars  are  thought  of.  In  fact,  the  most  direct  and 
cheapest  method  of  loading  cars  is  employed  in  many  instances,  for 
railway  spurs  are  carried  right  into  the  center  of  the  celery,  cauli- 
flower and  cabbage  fields,  the  crates  filled  and  the  cars  loaded  from 
the  ground  on  which  the  crops  were  grown.  This  not  only  reduces 
the  cost  of  handling  and  eliminates  the  cost  of  storage,  it  enables 
the  grower  to  supply  the  winter  and  spring  markets  on  the  Atlantic 
side,  in  the  Middle  West  and  the  great  interior  plateau,  as  well 
as  the  North  Pacific  coast  territory  of  the  United  States  and  Can- 
ada, with  vegetables  fresh  from  the  soil  during  many  months  when 
they  have  no  fresh  products  of  their  own. 

No  part  of  the  United  States,  except  an  adjacent  district  of 
Arizona  and  the  south  end  of  Florida,  enjoys  a  winter  temperature 
which  makes  such  a  traffic  possible,  and  even  those  small  outside 
areas  which  have  similar  temperature  do  not  have  other  conditions 
of  growth  like  those  of  California.  It  is  evident  that  in  the  future 
development  of  the  western  half  of  the  continent  of  North  Amer- 


VALUE  OF   CLIMATE  39 

ica  and  in  the  unfolding  of  North  Pacific  countries  generally, 
California  is  to  be  the  source  of  fresh  vegetables  during  the  many 
months  of  winter  which  prevail  in  those  northern  latitudes.  For 
this  traffic  California  enjoys  not  only  suitable  growing  conditions, 
but  has  also  the  advantage  of  nearness  and  of  transportation  by 
water.  No  matter  how  great,  then,  the  eastern  movement  of  winter 
grown  vegetables  may  become,  the  northern  and  northwestern 
movement,  of  which  California  will  have  a  monopoly,  will  induce 
additional  production  to  an  extent  which  can  not  now  be  foreseen, 
although  the  present  traffic  in  those  directions  is  considerable  and 
profitable. 


CHAPTER    IV. 
VEGETABLE  SOILS  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Soils  which  favor  the  most  satisfactory  growth  of  vegetables 
are  those  which  are  most  easily  maintained  in  a  condition  of  tilth 
to  promote  seed  germination  and  rapid  establishment  of  the  seedling 
in  sure-growing  contact  with  the  soil-substance;  soils  which  facili- 
tate deep-root  penetration  by  the  advancing  plant  so  that  moisture 
and  plant  food  shall  be  rapidly  reached,  and  which  have  sufficient 
retentive  power  and  capillarity  to  maintain  adequate  moisture  within 
reach  of  the  roots  and  such  amount  of  natural  fertility  that  the  plant 
may  attain  the  greatest  growth  in  the  least  time.  Soils  with  these 
characters  have  also  the"  most  valuable  incidental  qualities  of 
warmth,  to  foster  vegetable  processes;  porosity  to  facilitate  the 
escape  of  surplus  water  and  the  entrance  of  the  air  with  its  con- 
stituents which  promote  root  action  and  modification  of  the  soil 
substance  and  absorptive  power  to  readily  receive  and  deeply  dis- 
tribute rainfall  or  irrigation.  These  are  high  requirements,  for  it 
is  an  ideal  soil  which  possesses  them  all. 

Ideal  Soils  Not  Essential. — Fortunately  gardening  art  is  amply 
able  to  supply  natural  deficiencies  in  nearly  all  respects  and,  if  he 
is  working  for  high-priced  products  on  a  comparatively  small  area, 
the  vegetable  grower  can  often  profitably  make  considerable  expen- 
diture for  soil  improvement.  Market  gardeners  need  no  exhor- 
tation in  this  line,  but  the  home  gardener  should  be  urged  not  to 
despair  because  of  any  refractory  character  in  the  soil  he  is  obliged 
to  utilize.  If  he  study  the  subject  by  the  aid  of  most  excellent 
treatises  recently  written  on  the  soil  and  its  amelioration  he  can 
proceed  rationally  and  accomplish  marvels  with  Will,  Work  and 
Water  upon  almost  any  soil,  from  a  brick  yard  to  a  desert.  City 
people  have  grown  their  table  supplies  on  housetops ;  no  ruralist 
can  find  a  less  productive  subsoil. 

Light    Rather    Tlmn    Heavy    Soils. — The    characters    already 
cited  point  clearly  to  what  is   commonly   designated   as   a   rather 
(40) 


CALIFORNIA    SOILS    EXCELLENT  41 

light  soil  as  best  for  vegetable  growing.  The  extreme  variations 
in  soils  are  popularly  known  as  heavy  adobe  and  light  sandy  soils. 
Neither  are  usually  counted  suitable  for  garden  purposes  without 
treatment  to  overcome  their  defects  and  yet  as  the  terms  are  used 
in  some  California  regions,  there  are  very  good  gardens  on  both 
of  them.  The  explanation  is  that  in  such  localities  one  has  less 
sand  and  one  less  clay  than  the  other.  Both  are  really  loams  or 
mixtures  of  sand  and  clay;  one  a  clayey  loam,  the  other  a  loamy 
sand.  Aside  from  this  misapprehension  of  terms  we  have  of 
course  clays  (locally  called  "adobe")  which  are  true  enough  to 
the  type  to  bring  despair  to  the  most  patient  gardner  and  we 
have  washes  of  pure  sand  on  which  a  shallow-rooting  plant  could 
hardly  live  with  a  stream  of  water  pouring  over  beside  it.  But 
our  shifting  sands  of  the  interior  plains  and  our  so-called  deserts 
are  sandy  loams  which  yield  profusely  when  properly  irrigated. 
For  the  improvement  of  defective  soils  for  the  farm-garden,  sug- 
gestions will  be  given  later. 

Soils  Naturally  Excellent. — For  field  growth  of  vegetables 
in  California  the  grower  is  usually  content  to  proceed  upon  the 
natural  texture  and  fertility  of  his  soil.  The  crop  is  chosen  to 
suit  the  local  soil  and  climate,  consequently  we  have  districts  be- 
coming famous  for  special  vegetable  products  as  demand  for 
them  in  considerable  quantities  is  demonstrated.  In  such  districts 
the  soils  are  rather  light  and  yet  ample  in  richness  to  endure  for 
some  time  the  drain  of  continuous  cropping  in  the  same  line.  We 
have  areas  of  such  soils  considerably  in  excess  of  their  present 
profitable  use.  They  constitute  one  of  our  undeveloped  resources 
and  are  a  surety  of  future  advancement. 

For  the  very  gratifying  amount  of  accurate  knowledge  of 
California  soils  which  is  now  available  a  debt  of  honor  is  due  to 
Dr.  E.  W.  Hilgard,  formerly  Professor  of  Agriculture  and  Director 
of  the  Experiment  Stations  of  the  University  of  California,  who 
has  given  a  lifetime  to  advanced  investigations  in  soil  physics  and 
chemistry.  It  is  from  his  publications1  that  we  shall  condense 
some  account  of  the  specific  character  of  those  soils  which  are 
most  nearly  related  to  local  production  of  vegetables,  leaving  out 


lUSoils :  Their  Formation,  Properties,  Composition  and  Relations  to 
Climate  and  Plant  Growth;"  also  "Agriculture  for  Schools  of  the  Pacific 
Slope,"  by  Hilgard  and  Osterhout.  These  works  can  be  furnished  by  the 
PACIFIC  RURAL  PRESS  of  San  Francisco. 


42  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

of  account  the  heavy  adobe,  which  is  little  used  for  these  crops 
except  by  gardeners  who  radically  change  its  physical  character. 

Prevailing  Character  of  California  Soils. — In  his  interesting 
contrast  of  the  soils  of  arid  and  humid  regions,  Dr.  Hilgard  makes 
some  generalizations,  which  we  collate  to  serve  our  present  purpose. 

The  character  of  the  soils  of  the  arid  regions  is  predominantly 
sandy  or  silty,  with  but  a  small  portion  of  clay  unless  derived 
directly  or  indirectly  from  pre-existing  formations  of  clay  or  clay 
shales. 

The  idea  of  inherent  fertility  has  been  associated  so  generally 
with  sorts  of  a  more  or  less  clayey  character,  that  the  newcomer 
will  frequently  be  suspicious  of  the  productiveness  and  desirabilty 
of  the  sandy  or  silty  soils  of  the  arid  region  that  experience  has 
shown  to  be  of  the  highest  type  in  both  respects. 

Another  point  of  great  importance  is  that  the  difference  be- 
tween soil  and  subsoil,  which  is  so  striking  and  important  in  regions 
of  abundant  rainfall,  is  largely  obliterated  in  arid  climates.  Very 
commonly  hardly  a  perceptible  change  of  tint  or  texture  is  found 
for  depths  of  several  feet  and  material  from  such  depths,  when 
thrown  on  the  surface,  is  nearly  or  quite  as  fertile  as  the  original 
surface  soil.  In  the  case  of  a  cellar  dug  near  Nevada  City,  the 
red  soil  mass  excavated  from  a  depth  of  seven  to  ten  feet  was 
spread  over  part  of  a  vegetable  garden  near  by  and  tomatoes, 
beans  and  watermelons  were  planted  on  it.  The  growth  was  even 
better  than  on  the  parts  of  the  old  surface  not  covered,  which  had 
apparently  become  somewhat  exhausted  by  years  of  use. 

Examination  has  shown  that  the  percentage  of  humus  or  veg- 
etable mold  is  less  in  the  soils  of  the  arid  region,  but  their  humus 
contains  more  nitrogen.  Thus,  probably,  on  the  average  not  only 
is  the  aggregate  supply  of  nitrogen  in  the  soils  of  the  arid  region 
approximately  equal  to  that  of  humid  soils,  but  its  absorption  by 
plants  is  exceptionally  favored  by  climatic  conditions. 

As  to  the  minerals  which  constitute  fertility,  the  soils  of  the 
arid  region  contain  nearly  fifteen  times  as  much  lime,  five  times 
as  much  magnesia,  three  times  as  much  potash,  and  about  the 
same  amount  of  phosphoric  acid  as  the  soils  of  the  humid  regions. 

Significance  of  These  Facts. — These  leading  characteristics 
of  California's  horticulture  soils  are  of  the  highest  significance 
to  the  vegetable  grower  because  they  show  that  California  is  rich 
in  soils  of  ideal  excellence  for  his  purposes.  They  are  light  soils 


ALLUVIAL   OR   SEDIMENT   SOILS  43 

and  therefore  easy  of  cultivation  and  not  disposed  to  bake  on 
drying;  they  are  deep,  consequently  well  drained  and  yet  absorp- 
tive and  retentive  enough;  they  are  exceptionally  rich,  consquently 
extremely  productive  and  durable  and  they  can  often  be  given 
a  new  fertile  surface  by  deep  turning  from  the  fertility  of  the 
greater  depths.  This  was  the  natural  endowment  which  enabled 
the  pioneer  vegetable  growers  to  disturb  the  horticultural .  peace 
of  the  world  in  1849-50.  It  remains  to  foster  the  achievements 
of  later  years  and  it  will  endure  definitely  into  the  future. 

The  distribution  of  these  desirable  soils  gives  all  regions  a 
share  in  them.  Either  as  residual  loams  resulting  from  the  decom- 
position of  adjacent  rocks,  or  as  transported  loams  which  have  been 
carried  greater  or  less  distances  by  wind,  glacial  action  or  other 
moving  force,  or  as  alluvial  or  sediment  soils,  deposited  by  action 
of  flowing  streams,  every  California  county  has  its  vegetable  soils 
in  ample  measure.  Such  is  the  diversity  of  soils  within  narrow 
areas  in  California  that  it  may  not  take  a  very  large  farm  to  inclose 
several  diverse  types,  and  it  is  the  first  duty  of  the  settler  to  learn 
their  special  characters  and  adaptations  and  plan  his  production 
accordingly. 

Alluvial  or  Sediment  Soils. — Though  there  is  marked  differ- 
ence in  the  origin  of  our  soils  which  are  suitable  for  vegetable 
growing,  when  proper  moisture  conditions  are  arranged,  it  is 
naturally  the  alluvial  or  sediment  soils  which  have  hitherto  been 
chiefly  used,  They  have  been  deposited  by  recent  or  ancient  water 
courses  and  have  formerly  served  as  river  banks  or  river  and  lake 
bottoms.  They  have  beneath  them,  generally  quite  far  below,  the 
prevailing  soil  of  the  adjacent  country.  They  consist  of  fine  allu- 
vium with  seldom  any  admixture  of  coarse  materials.  They  are 
usually  very  deep  and  well  drained.  They  occur  sometimes  at  a  con- 
siderably higher  level  than  existing  streams  and  are  sometimes 
designated  as  "next  to  river  bottom,"  while  the  lower  levels  consti- 
tute the  "river  bottom."  In  some  small  valleys  they  have  spread 
deeply  all  over  the  original  soil,  having  been  washed  in  such 
quantities  from  adjacent  hills,  and  in  larger  valleys  have  spread 
for  considerable  distances  out  upon  the  plain.  These  are  primarily 
the  fruit  lands,  but  they  are  also  largely  used  for  such  vegetables 
as  thrive  upon  lighter  and  drier  soils.  Below  are  the  present  river 
bottoms,  usually  dark,  rich  and  moist  and  not  subject  to  baking 
or  cracking,  which  are  par  excellence,  vegetable  lands. 


44  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

Peat  Lands. — Another  class  of  alluvial  soils  is  known  as  peat 
soils,  which  consist  of  mixtures  in  various  proportions  of  silt  and 
sediment  with  the  debris  of  centuries'  growth  of  swamp  plants 
which  the  streams  have  currently  overflowed  in  flood  times  or 
over  which  they  have  risen  daily  as  the  tide  wall  has  held  back 
their  waters.  This  organic  matter  from  the  aquatic  plants  is  in 
various  stages  of  decomposition,  but  in  the  best  of  the  lands  has 
been  reduced  to  fineness  by  cultivation  after  the  floods  and  tides 
have  been  excluded  by  levees,  or  by  natural  barriers  interposed 
by  stream  or  wave  action,  or  by  recession  of  lake  waters  accord- 
ing as  the  situation  is  on  the  coast  or  distant  interior.  This  light 
but  very  deep  and  rich  soil  especially  suits  some  plants  and  is  the 
basis  of  some  of  our  export  vegetable  business,  as  for  instance, 
asparagus  and  celery  growing.  Such  soils  are  of  course  used 
locally  for  all  esculent  plants  which  thrive  upon  them  and  which 
the  market  favors.  Such  lands  are  in  vast  area  in  many  parts  of 
the  state,  from  near  the  ocean  to  the  margins  of  interior  rivers  and 
lakes  and  waters  of  interior  plateaux  as  well.  In  the  heat  of  the 
interior  valleys  they  dry  out  ve'ry  rapidly  when  seepage  or  over- 
flow from  streams  and  sloughs  is  cut  off  by  levees.  They  are  non- 
retentive,  owing  to  the  coarseness  of  their  structure,  but  irrigation 
is  easily  accomplished,  as  will  be  noted  in  the  proper  connection. 

IMPROVEMENT    OF    SOIL    TEXTURE    FOR    GARDENING. 

Aside  from  such  treatment  of  the  soil  as  is  designed  to  in- 
crease its  fertility,  which  will  be  considered  in  the  chapter  on 
fertilizing,  it  seems  fitting  in  this  connection  to  suggest  measures 
by  which  the  texture  of  the  soil  may  be  improved  when  necessary. 
This  is  important  in  the  farm  garden  because  there  may  not  be 
anything  approaching  an  ideal  garden  soil  inside  the  line  fences. 
But  this  fact  should  not  discourage  the  home  gardener,  as  has 
already  been  intimated. 

If  one  observes  the  operation  of  market  gardeners  or  reads 
any  treatise  on  gardening  written  for  the  older  countries,  he  is 
apt  to  conclude  that  the  Creator  has  done  little  for  the  modern 
garden  except  to  furnish  a  place  to  put  it,  because  the  chief  art 
of  gardening  seems  to  consist  in  using  as  little  of  the  natural  soil 
as  possible.  This  state  of  affairs  has  not  arisen  in  California  yet, 
for  the  reasons  shown  in  the  descriptions  of  our  garden  soils,  and 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    ADOBE  45 

yet  we  do  not  mean  to  suggest  that  the  farm  gardener  should  in 
all  cases  expect  to  reach  satisfactory  results  without  due  effort 
for  soil  improvement  on  the  small  area  which  he  expects  to  yield 
so  much. 

Improvement  of  Adobe  Soils. — Our  adobes,  especially  those 
of  the  darker  hues,  are  rich  and  durable.  In  common  with  heavy 
clay  soils  everywhere  they  are  retentive  of  moisture.  In  our  arid 
summers,  however,  they  lose  their  moisture  speedily  by  evaporation, 
if  untilled,  and  dry  out  to  a  greater  depth  than  lighter  soils.  They 
are  refractory  under  tillage  and  unless  caught  at  just  the  right 
moment  they  are  either  wax  or  rock  under  the  plow,  and  the  culti- 
vator will  either  stick  fast  or  ride  over  the  surface.  And  yet  if  one 
has  nothing  but  adobe  he  is  not  as  badly  off  as  he  might  be,  because 
adobe  is  easily  susceptible  of  improvement.  The  points  to  attain 
are  several,  but  they  are  inter-related  and  effort  for  one  measureably 
helps  toward  all. 

The  free  use  of  air-slaked  lime  applied  about  the  time  of  the 
first  rains  is  the  first  and  simplest  effort  toward  breaking  up  the 
tenacity  of  the  soil.  This  should  be  done  no  matter  what  greater 
efforts  are  to  be  undertaken  later. 

Deep  and  thorough  tillage,  taking  the  soil  at  just  that  condi- 
tion of  moisture  when  it  works  well  with  plow  and  harrow,  will 
be  found  to  progressively  improve  its  tillability  by  mere  action  of 
air  and  implements.  If  this  is  all  that  can  be  undertaken  at  first, 
do  this  thoroughly  and  put  in  the  cultivator  after  each  heavy  rain 
as  soon  as  the  proper  condition  of  soil  arrives,  so  as  to  prevent 
baking  of  the  surface.  For  winter  growth  of  vegetables  in  re- 
gions of  ample  rainfall,  use  the  ridge  system,  which  will  be  de- 
scribed in  a  subsequent  chapter. 

But  liming  and  persistent  tillage  are  only  temporizing  with 
adobe  and  do  not  accomplish  permanent  reform.  The  first  rational 
step  is  to  resort  to  adequate  drainage.  Tile  drains  two  and  a  half 
or  three  feet  deep  and  twenty  feet  apart  will  do  for  garden  plants. 
This  leaves  a  clear  surface  for  working  over,  but,  if  the  expense 
of  tiling  is  not  desired,  open  ditches  will  answer,  but  they  restrict 
cultivation  to  one  direction,  waste  land,  and  are  expensive  in  hand 
work  in  killing  weeds  in  the  ditches.  Open  ditches  are,  however, 
better  than  no  ditches  at  all.  The  effect  of  drainage  is  to  promote 
friability,  to  render  the  soil  tillable  earlier  and  oftener,  by  the 


^  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

quick  removal  of  surplus  water,  and  to  promote  seed  germination 
and  plant  growth. 

The  aeration  of  adobe  by  drainage  and  tillage  accomplishes 
a  considerable  improvement  but  still  more  radical  reform  meas- 
ures are  desirable.  The  soil  particles  are  naturally  too  small. 
They  must  be  separated  by  interposition  of  coarser  grains.  Plow 
into  the  soil  as  much  coarse  material  as  possible.  Farmyard  ma- 
nure, straw,  sand,  old  plaster,  coal  ashes,  sawdust,  almost  anything 
coarse  or  gritty  which  will  break  up  the  close  adherence  of  the  fine 
clay  particles,  release  the  surplus  water  and  let  in  the  air,  will 
produce  a  marked  effect  in  reducing  the  hateful  baking  and  crack- 
ing, root-tearing  and  moisture-losing  behavior  of  the  adobe. 
Scrape  the  corrals,  rake  up  the  leaves  and  fine  litter  of  all  kinds, 
make  the  adobe  garden  patch  the  graveyard  for  all  the  rubbish 
which  is  susceptible  of  decay.  The  farm  will  be  neater  and  the 
garden  will  pay  the  expense  in  its  easier  working  and  better 
growth.  Do  this  every  year  before  the  rains  come  and  you.  will 
rejoice  that  you  had  an  adobe  foundation  for  the  farm  garden. 

The  Improvement  of  Light,  Sandy  Soils. — This  effort  is  in 
some  cases  more  difficult  than  conquering  adobe.  It  all  depends 
upon  the  coarseness  of  the  sand  and  the  subsoil  upon  which  it 
rests.  If  soil  and  subsoil  are  coarse  sand  or  gravel  to  a  consider- 
able depth,  some  fruit  trees  may  thrive,  but  shallow  rooting  plants 
will  fail  unless  they  can  finish  their  growth  during  the  rainy 
season.  Summer  growth  is  impossible  because  water  will  flow 
through  their  sieve-like  structure  and  carry  away  plant  food  with 
it.  With  moisture  leaching  away  below  and  flying  away  above, 
and  with  intense  sun  heat  burning  the  foliage  by  direct  contact 
and  reflection,  such  wash  soils  are  indescribably  worse  than  adobe. 
But  this  condemnation  should  not  be  rashly  applied.  The  reference  is 
to  soils  very  coarse  in  character  which  have  the  appearance  of 
washed  sand  and  gravel.  Otherwise  it  may  be  a  soil  carried  from 
the  surface  of  the  hillsides  by  the  eroding  streams,  and,  if  com- 
posed of  reasonably  fine  materials,  in  addition  to  sand  and 
gravel,  should  have  plenty  of  plant  food  for  a  time  at  least.  The 
chief  difficulty  will  lie  in  maintaining  moisture  for  shallow  rooting 
plants.  Obviously  such  soils  are  best  suited  for  winter  growth, 
for  they  are  "warm  and  early"  when  situated  out  of  frosty  places.- 

Sandy  soils  which  are  imposed  upon  clay  or  hardpan,  pro- 
viding the  underlying  stratum  is  not  alkaline,  furnish  very  prom- 


SHALLOW    SANDY    SOILS    USEFUL  47 

ising  garden  materials,  even  though  the  layer  be  too  shallow  for 
the  growth  of  trees.  Many  fruit  growers  are  struggling  to  main- 
tain trees  on  such  spots  in  their  orchards  when  they  should  forsake 
the  effort  and  by  adequate  use  of  water  and  manure  turn  such 
spots  into  family  gardens.  The  holding  of  water  near  the  surface, 
which  is  fatal  to  tree  roots,  is  the  opportunity  for  the  growth  of 
most  vegetables.  Depth  of  soil  which  is  so  strongly  insisted  upon 
in  treatises  on  gardening,  constitutes  a  storehouse  of  moisture  and 
plant  food,  but  it  has  been  abundantly  demonstrated  the  world 
over  that  depth  is  not  essential  provided  the  plant  is  otherwise  fed 
and  watered.  California  gardens  proceeding  upon  rainfall  alone, 
need  a  deep,  retentive  soil ;  the  irrigated  garden  may  thrive  upon  a 
soil  too  coarse  to  be  retentive  providing  it  has  a  tight  bottom  to 
hold  moisture  within  reach  of  shallow  rooting  plants.  Therefore 
reclaim  such  sand  by  providing  a  home  water  supply,  if  not  in  an 
irrigated  region,  and  use  plenty  of  well-composted  and  decayed 
manure,  which  will  not  only  feed  the  plants  but  will  also  reform  its 
texture  and  transform  the  coarse  sand  into  a  rich  garden  soil,  kind 
in  cultivation  and  prodigious  in  its  yield  of  succulent  vegetables, 
for  sand  is  best  of  all  materials  for  free  and  rapid  root  development. 
The  treatment  of  such  soil  is  directly  opposite  that  prescribed 
for  adobe.  All  coarse  materials  must  go  through  compositing, 
which  will  be  described  in  another  chapter.  The  garden  should  be 
cleared  of  all  its  own  coarse  refuse  and  only  fine  compost  or  com- 
mercial fertilizers  used  upon  it.  Both  of  these  act  benignly  upon 
its  texture. 


CHAPTER   V. 
GARDEN  IRRIGATION. 

It  has  already  been  intimated  that  the  irrigated  garden  should 
be  the  aim  of  all  who  desire  to  attain  the  fullest  satisfaction  in 
vegetable  growing. 

What  Can  Be  Done  Without  Irrigation? — But  while  it  is  true 
that  the  California  gardener  must  have  irrigation  to  do  his  best 
and  to  give  him  a  solid  year  of  rotations  and  successions  in  his 
garden,  due  emphasis  must  be  laid  upon  the  fact  that  in  suitable 
locations  the  unirrigated  garden  in  California  is  a  greater  treasure 
than  at  the  East.  This  fact  is  due  to  the  character  of  our  winter 
climate,  which,  as  has  already  been  shown  in  a  previous  chapter, 
is  actually  a  growing  season  for  all  but  the  vegetables  which  will 
endure  no  frost.  By  using  to  their  fullest  capacity  our  six  rainy 
months,  by  early  cultivation  and  planting,  which  will  be  fully 
explained  later,  midwinter  and  spring  vegetables  can  be  produced 
in  great  variety;  and  by  proper  cultivation  for  the  retention  of 
moisture,  tender  vegetables,  planted  toward  the  end  of  the  rainy 
season,  will  find  moisture  enough  stored  in  the  soil  to  carry  them 
to  perfection  in  midsummer  and  autumn,  although  not  a  drop  of 
rain  may  fall,  from  the  sowing  of  the  seed  to  the  gathering  of 
the  crop.  For  this  reason  owners  of  fairly  deep  and  retentive  soil 
in  regions  of  ample  rainfall  can  attain  splendid  results  without 
irrigation,  if  they  will  only  be  alert  for  prompt  work  and  persist- 
ent in  summer  cultivation. 

What  can  be  done  in  California  with  the  unirrigated  garden 
depends  upon  conditions  existing  in  each  locality.  Character  and 
depth  of  soil,  amount  of  rainfall,  degree  of  heat  and  percentage 
of  relative  humidity  in  the  air,  the  lay  of  the  land — all  these  are 
determining  factors,  in  addition  to  the  dates  of  frost  occurrence 
which  fix  the  opening  and  closing  of  the  season  for  tender  plants 
in  the  open  ground.  The  significance  of  variations  in  these  fac- 
tors, and  the  regions  where  they  usually  occur  in  widest  extremes, 

(48) 


SOURCES   OF   WATER  49 

have  been  suggested  in  previous  chapters  and  the  ways  to  shape 
garden  practice  to  these  local  variations  will  naturally  be  dis- 
cussed as  we  come  to  describe  successful  methods  with  the  different 
vegetables.  Therefore  let  no  man  conclude  that  he  cannot  grow 
vegetables  until  he  completes  his  arrangement  for  irrigation  unless 
he  is  sure  that  his  winter  rainfall  is  too  uncertain  to  grow  even  a 
crop  of  wheat,  for  a  rainfall  that  will  carry  the  wheat  plant  to 
maturity  will  also  produce  quite  a  variety  of  garden  vegetables 
with  proper  practice  in  early  sowing  and  frequent  cultivation. 

And  from  this  low  water  mark  the  unirrigated  garden  pro- 
ceeds upward  with  richer  endowment  of  favoring  local  conditions, 
insuring  length  of  growing  season  and  variety  of  vegetables  until 
it  really  becomes  a  question  whether  irrigation  is  needed  at  all. 
It  certainly  is  not  for  ample  yield  of  many,  possibly  all,  of  the 
staples  of  the  garden,  but  to  insure  a  succession  of  salads  and 
relishes,  pot-herbs  and  legumes — in  short  to  enjoy  the  fullness  of 
the  California  season,  the  irrigated  garden,  we  say  again,  and  for 
the  last  time  we  hope,  is  the  thing  to  be  diligently  striven  for. 

SOURCES    OF    IRRIGATION     WATER. 

Whence  the  garden  shall  receive  its  water  supply  is  a  ques- 
tion for  each  to  determine  according  to  his  environment.  Water 
is  now  flowing  over  California  gardens  from  various  sources  as 
the  result  of  all  sorts  of  individual,  co-operative  and  corporate 
efforts  and  investments.  It  would  require  volumes  to  describe 
them.  Large  irrigation  enterprises  are  the  joint  work  of  engi- 
neers and  capitalists.  That  gardener  is  fortunate  who  has  only 
to  buy  his  water  from  a  fair-dealing  ditch  company  or  draw  his 
share  from  a  co-operative  water  company  in  which  he  has  an  in- 
terest. Such  a  source  is  best  of  all  because  causing  least  labor 
and  expense  in  average  cases.  Wherever  the  landowner  can  pro- 
mote honestly  and  economically  managed  irrigation  enterprises 
for  community  use  he  should  do  it  without  an  exhortation.  But 
to  whatever  extent  this  work  is  carried  there  will  always  remain 
opportunities,  probably,  where  farm  gardens  can  command  their 
own  irrigation  supplies  at  a  cost  which  will  warrant  the  effort. 
It  is  in  this  line  that  a  few  suggestions  will  be  offered 

Surface  Sources. — In  the  unirrigated  regions  of  the  state 
there  are  countless  opportunities  for  home  supplies  of  irrigation 


50  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

water  by  the  simple  process  of  allowing  it  to  run  down  hill  your 
way  instead  of  that  way  which  is  natural  to  it.  Water  which 
would  be  of  great  value  in  the  house  and  barn  and  farm-garden 
is  allowed  to  flow  by  in  its  own  deep  channel  when  a  very  little 
use  of  the  level  would  show  that  a  part  of  it  could  be  taken  out) 
into  a  ditch  or  pipe,  higher  up  its  course  through  the  farm,  and 
brought  along  with  less  fall  than  it  naturally  takes,  until  it  reaches 
the  buildings  high  up  the  slope  above  the  bank  instead  of  in  the 
deep  bed  it  has  cut  in  the  soil  below.  This  is  very  simple  and 
inexpensive,  and  yet  we  have  many  hillside  places  in  the  central 
and  northern  parts  of  the  state  where  the  water  is  carried  up  by 
hand  to  the  house,  and  the  animals  are  driven  down  to  the  water, 
and  the  garden  is  neglected  because  it  is  too  hard  work  to  haul 
water  up  to  it.  Of  course  there  are  many  cases  where  such  an 
obvious  resource  of  the  farm  has  been  utilized,  but  there  are 
many  where  it  is  neglected. 

Many  springs  on  the  hillsides  are  allowed  to  be  trampled 
into  mudholes  by  the  stock,  which  need  but  cleaning  out  and 
opening  up  to  yield  a  water-flow  beyond  any  amount  which  the 
old  outcropping  would  indicate.  A  short  pipe  line  would  deliver 
water  in  the  tops  of  the  buildings  if  desired  and  would  generously 
irrigate  all  the  land  needed  for  the  family  garden.  And  yet  the 
hillsides  are  full  of  unused  springs.  One  has,  however,  to  be  very 
careful  about  handling  a  spring.  Good  springs  have  been  lost  by  ex- 
cavating or  blasting  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  flow.  Some- 
times it  has  caused  the  spring  to  disappear  entirely.  At  the  same 
time  the  flow  has  been  increased  on  some  springs  by  careful 
opening,  cleaning  out  interfering  dirt  and  rubbish  so  as  to  open 
the  exit  of  the  water  without  opening  other  exits  for  its  'escape. 
When  this  is  done,  cementing  around  to  prevent  loss  of  water  by 
seepage  is  often  effective  in  increasing  the  flow  or  at  least  conserv- 
ing it  so  that  a  better  run  of  water  is  obtained. 

Between  the  hills  above  the  building  sites  there  are  many 
intervales  which  are  impassible  in  the  rainy  season  and  covered 
with  a  growth  of  sedges  and  swamp  grass  all  summer.  They  are 
natural  reservoirs  of  greater  or  less  capacity,  holding  the  surface 
water  and  underflow  from  the  hillsides.  In  the  dry  season  plow- 
ing and  scraping  will  easily  fashion  a  small  reservoir  at  the  lowest 
pqint  of  the  intervale  and  a  pipe  line  will  bring  down  water  at 
least  for  irrigation,  if  it  is  not  suited  for  other  uses.  Or  if  there 


SOURCES  OF   WATER 


51 


be  below  a  better  site  for  a  reservoir,  underdrainage  of  the  swamp 
will  turn  it  to  the  growth  of  good  grasses  while  the  outflow  from 
the  drains  can  be  converted  into  garden  crops  below. 

Again  even  when  the  surface  after  the  rainy  season  shows 
no  sign  of  moisture,  it  is  often  possible  to  keep  a  good  supply  in 
sight  by  closing  some  small  vale  and  dry-creek  bed  with  a  dam  to 


Boggy  Land  Caused  by  Seepage. 


Reclaimed  by  Reservoir  Building. 


hold  for  summer  use  in  the  garden  some  part  of  the  volumes  of 
water  which  rush  down  from  the  water-shed  during  the  winter 
rains. 

All  these  are  elementary  problems  in  water  developing  and 
water  saving.  It  would  reflect  upon  the  speaker's  intelligence 
to  mention  them  in  some  parts  of  the  state,  and  yet  in  the  imirri- 
gated  regions  there  lie  these  neglected  opportunities  —  monuments 
of  inattention  or  unthrift. 


52  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

Subterranean  Water  Sources. — There  are  few  places  where 
water  for  a  home  garden  cannot  be  had  by  well-digging  and  there 
are  many  large  districts  where  flowing  wells  are  secured  by 
shallow  boring.  At  the  bases  of  hills  horizontal  wells  or  tunnels 
are  frequently  satisfactory.  The  capacity  of  these  wells  and  tun- 
nels is  sometimes  very  great.  They  often  warrant  long-ditch  lines 
or  figure  in  the  supply  of  towns  and  cities.  Unquestionably  the 
present  development  of  water  by  these  means  is  only  a  fraction 
of  what  is  possible  and  the  owner  of  untried  land  should  under- 
take a  reasonable  amount  of  prospecting.  It  is  of  course  easy  to 
waste  money  in  this  way,  but  if  one  proceeds  after  as  full  study  as 
he  can  make  of  the  surface,  the  outcroppings  of  rock,  the  experi- 
ence of  others  in  the  same  region,  he  is  pretty  sure  to  realize  upon 
reasonable  anticipations. 

Excavations  in  dry  creek  beds  of  gravel  and  boulders  have 
often  brought  to  light  considerable  underflow  which  has  been  ar- 
rested and  the  water  stored  by  cement  dams  resting  on  the  bed 
rock. 

Flowing  wells  and  wells  which  bring  the  water  near  to  the 
surface  constitute  the  main  source  of  subterranean  water  employed 
in  California.  They  have  reclaimed  large  districts  which  were 
formerly  arid  wastes  and  they  are  largely  used  also  for  summer 
crops  in  regions  of  ample  winter  rains.  Well  borers  equipped 
with  good  appliances  are  to  be  found  in  all  parts  of  the  state. 

WATER    LIFTING    DEVICES. 

At  this  point  it  will  be  well  to  remark  that  any  gardener  is 
fortunate  who  has  water  brought  to  the  highest  point  of  his  plan- 
tation by  its  own  weight  without  a  struggle  on  his  part  against 
the  force  of  gravity,  and  yet  there  are  thousands  of  instances  of 
satisfactory  home  gardening  by  simple  water-lifting  devices. 

Horizontal  Windmills. — Devices  based  upon  the  overshot- 
wheel  principle  are  used  to  some  extent  on  this  coast,  but  the 
summer  winds  at  the  ground  surface  are  usually  too  light  to 
operate  them  well.  In  its  simplest  form  this  windmill  consists 
of  four  boards,  about  seven  feet  long,  fastened  to  long  arms  pro- 
jecting from  an  axle,  which  has  bearings  on  two  strong  posts  or 
a  framework.  The  wind  only  strikes  the  upper  part  of  the  wheel, 
the  lower  part  being  inclosed  by  a  board  fence.  In  a  slight  breeze 
the  mill  revolves  about  20  revolutions  per  minute,  but  in  a  good, 


LIFTING    WATER 


53 


stiff  gale  it  flies  so  fast  that  a  sliding  board  must  be  raised  to  shut 
off  the  wind.  The  wheel  is  connected  with  the  plunger  of  the 
pump  by  means  of  a  crank  at  one  end  of  the  axle. 

Gasoline  and  Crude  Oil  Engines. — These  devices  have  been 
greatly  improved  during  the  last  few  years  and  are  now  being 
largely  employed  for  water  lifting  for  irrigation.  There  are  sev- 
eral manufacturers  in  California,  the  fuel  is  very  cheap  here  and 
this,  in  connection  with  ease  with  which  the  engines  are  managed, 
constitute  them  most  economical  and  satisfactory  agencies  for 
pumping.  The  manufacturers  give  full  information  and  can  usu- 
ally cite  engines  in  operation  in  different  localities  where  their 
performances  can  be  personally  ascertained. 

Steam  Engines — Pumping  plants  of  great  capacity  operating 
by  steam  power  are  also  in  use  for  irrigation.  Large  vegetable 
growing  enterprises  render  considerable  investment  in  these  lines 
profitable.  Their  construction  and  operation  are,  however,  rather 
beyond  the  scope  of  this  work.  The  advice  of  a  mechanical  engi- 
neer should  be  secured  in  all  large  undertakings. 

The  Chinese  Pump. — A  water-lifting  device  which  is  very  ef- 
fective for  a  short  lift,  as  from  a  ditch  or  stream  to  adjoining 
lands,  is  the  Chinese  pump,  which  has  long  been  in  use  in  Cali4 
fornia.  It  is  a  modified  "Persian  wheel,"  and  is  so  simple  that  it 
can  be  home-made  with  old  threshing  machine  gearing  or  other 
mechanical  junk.  It  consists  of  an  endless  belt  working  like  the 
"elevator"  or  "straw  carrier"  of  a  threshing  machine.  For  in- 
stance, take  an  old  machine  belt  eight  inches  wide  and  twenty 
feet  long  or  sew  together  strong  canvas  to  make  one.  Make  a 
box  or  trough  about  nine  feet  long,  eight  inches  wide  and  six 
inches  deep  inside  measurement,  with  no  ends  nor  cover.  Rig 
at  each  end  of  this  box  a  wheel  or  pulley  over  which  the  endless 
belt  can  run.  Fasten  to  the  belt  a  few  inches  apart,  blocks  scant 
eight  inches  long  and  four  inches  wide,  so  that  the  belt  will  have 
a  flat  surface  on  one  side  and  the  other  crossed  with  the  blocks. 
When  this  is  placed  in  the  box  and  over  the  pulleys  at  each  end 
fasten  the  box  securely  in  an  inclined  position  with  the  lower  end 
in  the  water,  turn  the  upper  pulley  by  a  hand  crank  or  a  small 
belt  from  a  source  of  power  and  the  blocks  will  elevate  the  water 
and  shoot  it  out  from  the  top  of  the  box  in  fine  style.  For  a 
short  lift  this  apparatus  discharges  quite  a  large  volume  of  water 
with  comparatively  little  power. 


54  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 


DEVICES   FOR   SELF-LIFTING    WATER   SUPPLY. 

Where  running  water  is  at  hand  in  ample  supply  and  with 
adequate  velocity,  the  water  can  be  made  to  lift  itself  to  a  distrib- 
uting point,  if  not  too  high.  The  most  capacious  agencies  belong 
to  a  class  of  motors  called  current  wheels. 

Current  Wheels. — A  current  wheel  is  an  arrangement  resem- 
bling the  paddle  wheel  of  a  steamboat,  with  a  central  shaft  acting 
as  a  hub  for  spoke-like  arms  which  carry  on  their  ends  boxes  or 
buckets.  The  wheel  is  hung  by  the  projecting  ends  of  the  shaft 
so  that  the  buckets  are  just  covered  under  the  surface  of  the 
water.  The  current  catches  them  and  causes  the  wheel  to  revolve; 
the  rilled  buckets  are  carried  up  as  empty  ones  descend  into  the 
water.  The  filled  buckets  are  emptied  as  the  turning  of  the  wheel 
inverts  them,,  and  the  water  is  caught  in  a  box  properly  placed 
and  is  then  conducted  by  a  flume  to  the  point  of  discharge.  Cur- 
rent wheels  are  largely  used  for  short  lifts  from  streams  or  irriga- 
tion ditches  in  which  the  water  flows  with  sufficient  velocity  to 
revolve  them.  The  wheels  are  usually  home-made  and  much 
ingenuity  can  be  employed  in  constructing  them  of  available  ma- 
terials. 

Hydraulic  Rams. — The  hydraulic  ram  is  wasteful  in  that  it 
can  deliver  at  a  higher  level  but  a  fraction  of  the  water  furnished 
it  and  it  requires  a  definite  fall  for  its  action.  Where  conditions 
are  favorable  it  does  become  an  effective  agency  because  it  acts 
incessantly  and,  with  suitable  storage,  considerable  amounts  of 
water  become  available  for  irrigation.  Manufacturers  of  hydraulic 
rams  furnish  full  accounts  of  their  requirements  and  achievements. 

A  suggestive  combination  of  current  wheel  and  hydraulic 
ram,  in  operation  in  this  state,  is  described  as  follows: 

A.  P.  Osborn's  residence  and  the  best  part  of  his  land  are  located  on  high 
grounds  on  the  bank  of  Tule  river.  To  get  water  on  this  land  without 
going  several  miles  up  the  river  and  bringing  out  a  ditch,  Mr.  Osborn  placed 
in  the  river  a  wheel  twenty-five  feet  in  diameter  and  five  feet  wide.  Sur- 
rounding this  wheel  on  either  side  are  forty  boxes,  each  holding  four  gallons 
of  water,  making  in  all  eighty  boxes,  with  an  entire  lifting  capacity  of  three 
hundred  and  twenty  gallons  at  each  revolution  of  the  wheel,  which  is  turned 
by  the  current  of  the  river.  As  the  boxes  reach  an  elevation  of  twenty-two 
feet,  the  water  in  them  is  emptied  into  a  flume,  which  conducts  it  onward 
into  an  irrigation  ditch.  This  elevating  the  water  twenty-two  feet  is  only 
sufficient  to  place  it  on  the  flat  whereon  is  done  the  farming,  and  will  not 
take  it  to  the  knoll  on  which  stands  the  residence.  This  is  accomplished  by 


THE   USE  OF   SIPHONS  55 

a  hydraulic  ram.  A  part  of  the  water  reaching  the  top  of  the  river  bank  is 
allowed  to  run  back  down  the  steep  bank  through  a  pipe,  thus  furnishing 
motive  power  to  run  the  ram,  which  sends  water  up  to  the  house.  The  wheel 
and  flume  cost,  when  completed,  $150,  and,  considering  the  small  liability  of 
its  becoming  damaged,  it  is  certainly  preferable  to  keeping  in  repair  several 
miles  of  ditch. 

Conveying  Water  by  Siphon. — Conveying  water  over  a  hill  to 
a  point  of  delivery  on  the  other  side  lower  than  the  supply  point 
is  a  simple  operation,  and  one  which  might  be  more  generally 
employed  than  it  is.  A  simple  instance  is  this:  selecting  a  low, 
moist  spot  over  the  hill,  a  pit  was  dug,  twelve  by  twenty-tour  feet 
to  a  depth  of  twelve  feet.  When  completed,  five  and  a  half  feet  of 
water  gathered  in  the  pond.  An  inch  pipe  was  laid  along  the 
level  about  four  hundred  feet  and  over  a  gently  sloping  hill  twelve 
and  one-half  feet  above  the  plain  and  then  down  the  slope  west- 
ward about  eight  hundred  feet.  At  the  summit  a  pump  was  used 
temporarily  to  draw  the  water  upward  in  the  pipe  and  soon  a  flow 
began  from  the  outlet.  The  pump  was  removed  and  the  siphon 
worked  to  perfection. 

Siphons  are  very  satisfactory  where  applicable  and  are  some- 
times made  of  pipes  of  considerable  diameter  where  the  supply 
is  large.  Such  devices  are  vastly  cheaper  than  tunneling.  It  is 
even  on  record  that  a  fruit  grower  put  in  quite  an  expensive 
pumping  plant  to  force  water  over  a  hill  to  his  orchard  on  the 
other  side  and  was  surprised  to  find  that  the  water  ran  when  the 
pump  was  not  in  motion.  He  had  not  figured  that  the  delivery 
point  was  lower  than  the  supply  point  but  so  it  was.  In  the  case 
of  conveying  water  from  rivers  to  leveed  lands  below  the  stream, 
the  siphon  is  cheaper  than  a  flood-gate  and  safer  and  has  the 
advantage  of  being  portable. 

FARM  AND  GARDEN  RESERVOIRS. 

For  the  construction  of  a  dam  to  restrain  the  water  of  a  creek 
it  is  always  wisest  for  the  man  who  has  had  no  experience  in 
such  work  to  secure  the  advice  of  an  expert.  Fortunately  such 
men  are  very  abundant  in  California  as  dam  building  has  been  a 
profession  of  Californians  ever  since  early  mining  days.  The 
making  of  water-tight  dams  on  a  small  scale  is  not  necessarily  a 
very  expensive  operation,  but  it  is  liable  to  become  so  if  not  done 
properly.  An  experienced  man  can  give  suggestions  as  to  the 


56  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

location  of  the  work  in  view  of  the  natural  conditions  and  the  use 
to  be  made  of  the  water,  the  character  of  natural  banks  or  bottom 
which  it  is  designed  to  use  and  the  best  materials  at  hand  for 
building,  as  well  as  the  proper  form  of  the  construction  for  safety 
and  efficiency  in  connection  with  economical  completion  of  the 
job.  Expert  advice  is  especially  necessary  where  dams  are  to  be 
built  for  closing  natural  waterways  for  such  efforts  involve  the 
handling  of  volumes  of  storm  water  which  a  farmer  may  have 
little  conception  of,  though  he  may  have  grown  up  on  the  site. 

The  excavation  of  a  small  reservoir  to  collect  water  from 
sources  wholly  apart  from  a  natural  water  course  is  a  simpler 
proposition  and  can  be  easily  done  with  farm  experience  and  ap- 
pliances, and  on  this  work  some  suggestions  may  be  offered. 

First:  Location  is  governed  by  local  factors,  but  it  should 
be  at  sufficient  elevation  to  deliver  the  water  freely  at  whatever 
point  is  involved  in  its  use. 

Second:  Its  area  will  depend  upon  the  prospective  water 
supply.  If  this  is  ample,  do  not  make  the  pond  too  small.  A 
circular  reservoir  with  an  average  depth  of  four  feet  through  a 
circular  space  forty  feet  in  diameter,  will  hold  water  enough  to 
cover  about  two-thirds  of  an  acre  two  inches  deep.  This  will 
amount  to  a  good  soaking  of  a  good-sized  farm  garden,  and  is 
probably  as  small  a  dirt  reservoir  as  it  will  be  worth  while  to 
make.  For  smaller  storage  wooden  or  galvanized  iron  tanks  can 
well  be  used. 

Third:  In  shape  the  circle  is  easiest  to  mark  out  and  con- 
struct symmetrically  and  encloses  the  greatest  possible  area  with 
the  least  length  of  bank,  but  on  a  small  figure  it  may  be  a  little 
easier  to  handle  teams  and  scrapers  on  an  oval. 

Fourth:  A  fairly  retentive  loam  free  from  rock  or  rubbish, 
upon  a  clay  subsoil,  favors  the  easiest  and  cheapest  construction 
of  a  dirt  reservoir  because  with  careful  construction  it  can  be  made 
water  tight  without  using  other  materials.  Clay  is  disposed  to 
leak  through  cracking  and  sand  will  neither  hold  shape  nor  water. 
Clay  and  clean  sand  mixed,  forms  an  ideal  material. 

Fifth :  The  earth  surface  under  both  the  pond  and  the  banks 
must  be  thoroughly  cleaned  of  all  sods  and  trash  and  the  whole 
area  plowed  and  harrowed  well  to  make  it  as  fine  as  possible. 
The  dirt  should  not  be  dumped  on  the  old  surface  to  start  the 
bank.  When  the  whole  is  plowed  and  harrowed  the  scraper  can 


RESERVOIR  BUILDING  57 

be  started,  moving  the  dirt  from  the  center  to  the  banks,  and  each 
scraper  load  should  be  spread  and  lumps  broken  with  a  shovel  at 
once,  leveling  and  rilling  hoof  prints  so  that  all  tramping  or 
pressure  of  the  scraper  in  passing  may  tend  toward  even  packing 
of  the  soil.  All  spots  not  reached  by  the  team  or  tools  should  be 
tramped  by  the  shoveler  so  that  no  loose  dirt  may  be  covered. 
This  work  should  be  continued  all  through  the  building.  The 
harrow  should  follow  the  plow  in  the  bottom  before  the  scraper 
moves  the  dirt  to  the  bank. 

Sixth:  The  outflow  pipe  should  be  put  in  early.  A  wooden 
box  is  often  used  having  an  interior  space  of  six  by  six  inches, 
but  a  four  or  six  inch  lap-welded  steel  or  cast  iron  pipe  is  vastly 
better.  It  should  have  an  elbow  turned  up  on  the  inside  so  that 
a  plug  with  a  long  handle  can  be  used  to  open  or  close  the  exit. 
A  valve  is  better  than  a  plug,  but  it  costs  more.  The  pipe  should 
be  bedded  in  a  mass  of  concrete  so  that  it  will  not  be  loosened  by 
working  the  exit  apparatus. 

Seventh:  The  width  of  the  embankment  is  governed  by  its 
height.  The  slopes  with  the  best  of  earth  should  not  be  less  than 
two  feet  horizontal  to  one  foot  vertical  on  the  inside;  and  if  the 
material  is  light,  three  to  one  on  the  outside  will  be  none  too 
much. 

Eighth :  The  bottom  and  inside  of  the  reservoir  banks  should 
be  well  puddled.  This  is  done  by  thorough  plowing  and  harrowing 
or  cultivating  to  a  depth  of  eight  inches  and  then  admitting  water 
slowly  and  keep  the  teams  going  with  the  harrow.  Begin  at  the 
center  and  work  round  and  round  until  the  mud  becomes  as 
smooth  as  pancake  batter,  working  and  reworking  away  from 
the  center  until  the  puddle  is  carried  well  up  the  sloping  bank. 
This  puddle  layer,  if  the  soil  is  fitted  for  it,  will  make  the  pond 
hold  water.  :  : 

A  Small  Reservoir  in  Sandy  Soil. — The  foregoing  construc- 
tion will  not  hold  water  if  the  materials  are  too  coarse  in  char 
acter.  Where  percolation  is  free  a  water-tight  covering  for  the 
bottom  and  banks  must  be  provided.  This  can  be  done  by  hauling 
in  clay  for  a  puddle  or  the  reservoir  after  shaping  may  be  cemented. 
In  parts  of  the  state  where  asphaltum  is  abundant  this  material 
is  very  satisfactorily,  used,  the  asphaltum  being  melted,  mixed 
with  sand  and  spread  on  hot  and  smoothed  down  well  with  hot 
shovels  and  hoes. 


58  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

Cement  can  be  used  in  the  form  of  a  mortar  made  of  six 
parts  sharp  clean  sand  to  one  part  Portland  cement. '  Apply  two 
coats,  and  then  brush  over  with  a  whitewash  of  clear  cement  and 
water.  It  is  not  necessary  to  make  walls  of  brick  or  stone  on 
which  to  cement.  Cemented  directly  on  the  earth,  even  if  it  be 
sand  or  gravel,  answers  perfectly.  As  we  have  no  earth-freezing 
such  work  is  safe.  If  there  should  be  cracks,  give  a  coat  of  clear 
cement  and  water  and  it  will  close  them  up. 

The  use  of  clay  puddle  is  also  very  satisfactory.  The  follow- 
ing is  the  plan  of  construction  followed  by  Mr.  Edward  Berwick, 
of  Carmel  valley,  Monterey  county,  in  building  a  reservoir  which 
has  stood  thirty  years  of  constant  use: 

My  reservoir  is  eighty  feet  in  diameter  and  made  on  land  with  a  slope 
of  say  one  in  forty.  I  drove  a  peg  in  for  a  center,  took  a  forty-foot  line  and 
marked  a  circle.  I  dug  a  trench  eighteen  inches  in  width,  say  three  feet 
deep  where  the  land  level  was  lowest  and  five  feet  where  it  was  highest,  so 
that  the  ditch  bottom  was  level.  I  filled  the  ditch  with  puddled  clay,  well 
tamped,  then  excavated  a  width  of  perhaps  ten  feet,  just  inside  the  clay 
ring,  to  the  level  required  for  the  reservoir  bottom.  I  lined  this  ten  feet  of 
floor  with  clay,  being  careful  to  unite  the  clay  of  the  ditch  ring  with  this 
floor.  Then  began  clearing  out  the  middle  of  the  reservoir  and  banking  up 
on  this  ten-foot  floor,  and  also  on  outside,  at  the  same  time  adding  clay  to 
the  ditch  ring  as  the  embankment  grew. 

When  the  required  excavation  was  made,  cleared  up  well  to  the  edge  of 
the  ten-foot  wide  floor,  I  put  in  the  clay  for  the  rest  of  the  bottom,  uniting  it, 
of  course,  with  the  ten  feet  already  laid,  but  now  covered  with  the  inner  em- 
bankment. A  three-inch  discharge  pipe  was  laid  at  the  bottom,  with  neces- 
sary fittings. 

The  reservoir  is  nearly  seven  feet  deep  when  filled,  and  forms  an  excel- 
lent bathing  tank  for  the  family  in  addition  to  its  irrigation  service. 

This  is  a  very  thorough  style  of  construction.  It  would  be 
cheaper  to  excavate  as  described  in  the  previous  list  of  sugges- 
tions and  then  trust  to  a  clay  layer  evenly  spread  over  the  bottom 
and  sloping  sides,  but  the  use  of  the  puddle  trench  and  flat  floor 
is  surer  to  hold  water.  The  puddle  trench  is  carried  to  the  top 
of  the  bank;  clay  layering  on  the  sloping  bank  will  crack  as  the 
water  is  drawn  down  and  is  apt  to  be  leaky.  Mr.  Berwick  has 
scraped  out  a  very  rich  deposit  of  mud  and  decayed  leaves  and 
water  weed  once  since  he  built  the  reservoir,  thus  obtaining  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  fertilizer,  and  after  scraping,  the  bottom  was 
given  a  new  floor  of  clay.  He  has  also  raised  the  sides  of  the 


RESERVOIR  BUILDING  59 

reservoir  one  foot  and  put  in  exit  pipes  of  four  and  six  inches  to 
release  water  in  different  directions. 

Stone  or  Brick  Walls  for  Reservoirs. — Very  shapely  but  rather 
more  expensive  walls  can  of  course  be  made  of  stone  or  brick  laid 
in  cement  or  of  reinforced  concrete,  and  in  this  way  the  water  con- 
tents of  the  same  diameter  can  be  increased.  The  bottom  can  be 
puddled  or  clayed  or  cemented,  according  to  the  character  of  the 
ground  or  the  taste  of  the  builder. 

Subterranean  Reservoirs. — Large  shallow  wells  are  often  the 
cheapest  reservoirs,  and  with  pumps  of  large  outflow-  sufficient 
head  is  secured  for  direct  application  to  the  distributing  ditches. 
Tunnels  are  also  subterranean  reservoirs  and  are  frequently  used 
as  such.  Both  these  wells  and  tunnels  are  economical  of  water,  a» 
evaporation  is  very  slight.  The  following  is  an  instance : 

Mr.  C.  L.  Durban  says  that  the  cheapest  reservoir  that  a  man  can  build 
on  his  land  for  retaining  water  for  irrigation  purposes  is  a  tunnel  run  into  a 
hill.  An  open  reservoir  in  a  canon  or  other  suitable  place,  will  lose  one- 
third  of  its  water  during  the  summer  from  evaporation,  while  in  a  tunnel 
there  is  no  loss.  A  small  spring  will  supply  a  tunnel  with  sufficient  water 
for  many*  purposes.  He  has  illustrated  this  in  a  practical  manner.  On  his 
own  land  at  Mesilla  valley,  he  run  a  tunnel  thirty-five  feet  long  into  a  hill,  in 
so  doing  tapping  a  spring;  this  tunnel  he  dammed  up,  leaving  a  space  thirty- 
five  feet  long  and  the  size  of  the  tunnel,  which  is  about  five  feet  by  six 
feet,  to  be  filled  with  water.  He  says  that  the  tunnel  is  the  cheapest  and 
best  form,  and  that  for  each  dollar  expended  one  can  obtain  a  space  equal 
to  twenty-five  cubic  feet. 

Sub-irrigation  by  Trenches. — Another  form  of  subterranean 
reservoir  consists  of  trenches  filled  up  to  the  plow-depth  with  broken 
rock.  It  is  prodigiously  expensive  and  seems  only  worthy  of  con- 
sideration in  the  improvement  of  a  hillside  home  place,  where  satis- 
faction is  not  conditioned  upon  cost.  A  California  instance  of  the 
system  is  the  following,  found  in  Lassen  county  in  the  improvement 
of  a  home  garden : 

The  grounds  have  too  great  a  slope  for  spraying,  and  instead  of  supply- 
ing surface  ditches,  the  owner  constructed  permanent  trenches,  which  have 
no  outlet  except  by  seepage.  These  trenches  extend  one  hundred  feet  in 
length  along  the  face  of  the  slope,  each  being  eighteen  inches  deep  and  thirty 
inches  wide.  The  earth  was  scattered  on  the  upper  side  of  each  cut,  and  by 
a  little  care  in  plowing  the  garden  was  terraced  into  slopes  of  less  grade, 
each  one  hundred  feet  long,  and  twenty-eight  feet  wide.  As  a  driveway 
passes  along  each  end  of  the  terraces,  nearly  all  the  cultivation  is  done  by  a 
horse  turning  on  the  driveways. 


60  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES 

The  trenches  are  designed  as  miniature  reservoirs,  and  are  kept  nearly 
full,  when  irrigation  is  required,  by  a  small  stream  flowing  from  one-half- 
inch  standpipes  at  one  end  of  each  trench.  The  ground  is  free  from  stone 
and  was  originally  covered  with  sagebrush,  which  sufficiently  describes  the 
land  to  those  who  are  familiar  with  the  fertile,  friable,  easily  irrigated  soils 
indicated  by  such  natural  growth.  These  trenches  prove  quite  sufficient  to 
irrigate  the  garden  in  the  long,  dry  summers  of  this  region,  and  ground 
which  would  not  mature  white  beans,  rye,  or  buckwheat,  produces  heavy 
crops  of  sweet  corn,  tomatoes,  peas,  strawberries  and  all  small  fruits — 
asparagus,  celery,  potatoes,  onions,  melons,  and,  in  short,  the  usual  variety 
of  first-class  gardens.  In  the  middle  of  the  lower  terraces,  and  occasionally 
about  the  grounds,  are  planted  a  few  family  fruit  trees. 

The  size  of  the  stream  filling  each  trench  is  incredibly  small.  By  my 
actual  measurement  with  a  gallon  measure,  each  trench  is  supplied  by  the  flow 
of  three  quarts  per  minute;  each  one  of  these  streams  thus  irrigating  a  strip 
of  land  twenty-eight  feet  wide  and  one  hundred  feet  long. 

THE  APPLICATION   OF  WATER. 

Many  methods  are  followed  in  the  distribution  of  water  in  the 
garden.  Which  is  the  best  method  must  be  determined  largely  by 
the  character  of  the  soil,  and  to  meet  this  requirement  one  must 
sometimes  sacrifice  some  of  the  incidental  advantages  of  other 
methods. 

Checks. — Where  the  garden  soil  is  very  light,  open  and  leachy, 
the  vegetables  are  often  grown  in  checks  or  divisions  larger  or 
smalldr,  according  to  the  slope  of  the  land ;  the  checks  being  inclosed 
by  little  banks  or  levees  which  hold  the  water  from  escape  except 
as  it  sinks  vertically  into  the  soil.  This  is  the  only  way  by  which  a 
leachy  soil  can  be  uniformly  moistened,  except  by  sprinkling,  which 
is  seldom  economical  and  is  seldom  followed  in  California  except 
in  village  garden  practice.  The  banks  of  the  checks  servq  as  walks 
upon  which  one  can  go  dry-shod  from  place  to  place  and  regulate 
the  distribution  of  water.  The  garden  then,  during  irrigation, 
shows  the  plants  growing  in  shallow  vats  of  water  of  irregular 
shape  and  size  and  when  the  water  sinks  away  they  are  seen  to  be 
in  sunken  beds.  This  system  sadly  interferes  with  the  use*  of  the 
horse  in  cultivation  unless  the  ground  is  practically  level  and  the 
checks  can  be  made  very  large.  In  small  checks  the  cultivation 
must  be  done  by  hand.  Market  gardeners  do  this  faithfully  but 
the  amateur  is  apt  to  be  careless  about  it  and  to  trust  to  frequently 
filling  the  checks  instead  of  regularly  stirring  the  soil.  This  tends 
to  cement  the  surface,  exclude  the  air  and  make  the  soil  sodden. 
The  plants  lose  their  free,  healthy  growth  and  show  their  distress. 


RAISED  AND  LOWERED  BEDS 


61 


Raised  Beds. — These  are  just  the  reverse  of  the  check  system 
for  the  ground  surface  is  raised  a  little  by  the  dirt  thrown  out  in 
excavating  narrow  ditches  about  four  or  five  feet  apart  through 
which  the  water  is  allowed  to  flow  slowly  if  the  ground  is  nearly 
level;  if  slightly  sloping,  small  dams  are  made  at  such  distances 
apart  as  are  necessary  to  hold  the  water  at  about  uniform  depth 
below  the  surfaces  of  the  beds.  In  this  system  the  distribution  of  the 
water  is  very  largely  accomplished  by  the  capillarity  of  the  soil, 
though  the  market  gardeners  who  affect  this  method  also  shower 


Depressed  Beds  and  Irrigation  System. 


Raised  Beds  or  Ridges  Irrigated  by  Capillarity. 

the  plants  from  time  to  time  by  throwing  the  water  up  from  the 
ditch  with  a  scoop  shovel  or  a  shallow  pan.  The  narrow  ditches 
serve  as  walks  in  working  around  the  beds  and  rubber  boots  are  in 
request.  By  this  system  ample  water  supplies  are  constantly  had 
within  reach  of  the  roots  and  as  the  surface  is  never  puddled  it  is 
easy  to  keep  it  loose  and  open  to  thef  air.  When  the  crop  is  gathered 
the  whole  field  is  deeply  broken  up  with  the  plow  and  harrow  and 
the  whole  system  laid  out  anew,  as  soon  as,  in  the  course  of  rotation, 
a  crop  requiring  such  hydropathic  treatment  comes  again  to  the 
ground. 


62  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

Permanent  Ditches. — The  use  of  permanent  ditchers  was  for- 
merly very  common  in  the  irrigation  of  sloping  garden  ground  and 
is  still  somewhat  observed.  These  ditches  are  drawn  very  nearly 
on  contour  lines,  only  just  enough  fall  being  given  to  move  the 
water  slowly.  When  the  slope  is  nearly  uniform  the  ditches  are 
almost  parallel  and  they  are  distanced  according  to  what  is  known 
of  the  movement  of  water  by  seepage  down  the)  slope  in  each  par- 
ticular soil.  The  plantings  are  made  on  the  plan  of  each  strip 
securing  its  moisture  from  the  ditch  above  and  water  is  admitted 
occasionally  or  kept  running  almost  continuously  according  to  the 
needs  of  the  particular  crop  or  the  leakiness  of  the  ditch.  The  out- 
flow from  the  ditch,  after  traversing  backward  and  forward  its  full 
length,  is  carried  to  an  alfalfa  patch  below  and  thus  utilized.  These 
permanent  ditches  serve  a  good  purpose  in  saving  hillsides  from 
washing  as  they  catch  the/  surface  storm  water  before  it  has  a  chance 
to  acquire  much  headway  and  carry  it  down  gently.  Where  the 
soil  favors  such  distribution  very  good  results  are  attained  with 
these  ditches,  but  the  tendejncy  is  to  use  the  ditches  too  long  and 
allow  them  to  become  cemented  by  action  of  water  and  deposit  of 
slime.  Besides  thejy  grow  weeds  and  distribute  seeds  if  their  banks 
are  neglected.  In  most  cases  it  is  better  to  employ  less  permanency 
— breaking  up  the  ground  and  locating  new  ditchers  at  shorter  in- 
tervals of  time. 

Lowland  Irrigation  by  Seepage. — Another  form  of  irrigation 
by  means  of  permanent  ditches  is  that  practiced  on  reclaimed  lands 
along  thq  interior  rivers.  When  the  rivers  are  swollen  from  sum- 
mer melting  of  snow  in  the  high  Sierra,  the  water  is  brought  to  the 
land  by  flood-gates  in  the  levees.  When  the  rivers  are  low  ve,lry 
capacious  pumping  plants  are  used — the  same  serving  at  other  times 
to  drain  the  lands  when  they  are  too  wet  from  the  rainfall  or  seep- 
age. The  soils  of  these  reclaimed  lands  is  loose  and  prone  to  dry 
out  because  of  their  lack  of  capillarity,  so  that  at  times  irrigation  is 
as  necessary  as  on  uplands.  The  water  is  distributed  by  means  of 
small,  rather  deep,  ditches  from  which  moisture  readily  extends  as 
the  water  moves  out  over  the\  clay  bottom  which  underlies  most  of 
these  lands  and  makes  it  possible  to  hold  the  water  up  within  reach 
of  the  roots  of  the  plants.  With  rich  land,  high  heat  and  ample 
moisture  just  below  the  surface  the  growth  is  almost  marvelous. 
On  these  lowlands  flooding  the  surface  frequently  seriously  in- 
jures the  plants  by  sun  scald. 


METHODS  WITH   IRRIGATION  63 

Ridge  System  of  Irrigating  and  Planting. — Another  plan  of 
using  seepage  from  permanent  ditches  is  the  ridge  system  by  which 
the  water  is  run  at  a  little  elevation  above  the  surface,  upright 
plants  being  placed  beside  the  water  on  the  top  of  the  ridges  and 
running  plants  on  the  sides  of  the  ridges  with  the  lower  ground 
between  the  ridges  for  the  extension  of  their  growth.  The  general 
significance  of  the  arrangement  lies  in  keeping  the  water  supply 
constant  near  the  roots,  and  it  is  adapted  to  rather  open  soils  in 
which  lateral  percolation  is  deficient.  The  elevation  of  the  ditch 
thus  helps  to  hold  moisture  near  the  surface  on  which  the  plants 
are)  placed  without  resorting  to  flooding  as  in  the  check  system.  It 
is  obviously  well  adapted  to  a  region  of  very  light  rainfall  and  can 
be  laid  out  in  a  way  to  drain  the  ridges  when  surplus  water  has  to 
be  disposed  of.  It  involves  a  large  amount  of  hand  work.  In  a 
locality  where  both  summer  and  winte'r  gardening  must  be  largely 
dependent  upon  irrigation  it  has  striking  advantages.  The  follow- 
ing description  is  from  a  Kern  county  vegetable  grower,9  who 
speaks  from  five  yejars'  satisfactory  experience  with  the  method  : 

In  preparing  the  ground  make  it  as  near  level  as  possible,  and  cover  the 
soil  with  about  two  inches  of  manure  (avoid  coarse  straw  or  stalks),  and 
plow  this  under  six  to  eight  inches  deep.  Then  harrow  and  cultivate  until 
the  soil  is  smooth  and  fine.  Use  a  wire  or  line  to  lay  out  the  ground ;  spread 
fine  manure  (well  rotted  is  preferable)  two  feet  wide  and  one  inch  thick,  on 
a  line  directly  from  your  windmill  or  tank  across  the  plat  of  ground.  Take 
a  plow  and  turn  two  furrows  together  directly  over  the  manure,  making  a 
high  ridge.  Smooth  and  firm  the  soil  with  a  rake  or  hoe,  and  directly  on 
top  and  lengthwise  of  the  ridge  form  a  ditch  or  trough  about  five  inches 
wide  and  three  inches  deep,  on  a  grade  so  the  water  will  run  from  one  end 
of  the  ridge  to  the  other,  connecting  the  ends  se  that  the  water  will  run  the 
entire  length  of  all  the  ridges  without  any  attention;  or  you  can  make  the 
ridges  around  the  plat,  which  will  enable  you  to  distribute  the  water  from 
the  ridge  to  any  point  desired  by  means  of  a  small  piece  of  pipe  inserted  in 
the  edge  of  the  trough,  always  maintaining  a  uniformity  of  moisture,  which 
is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  growth  of  certain  vegetables.  Run  the  water 
through  the  ditch  until  it  is  settled  and  well  moistened,  then  plant  the  seed 
at  the  base  and  on  either  side  of  the  ridge. 

Do  not  allow  the  water  to  rise  up  over  the  beds  under  any  circumstances. 
If  the  work  is  properly  done  the  water  will  run  through  the  ditches  in  the 
high  ridges  and  from  their  termination  will  continue  from  one  trench  to 
another,  till  each  bed  in  the  plat  is  nicely  moistened,  and  after  once  thoroughly 
wet  and  settled  it  will  not  require  more  than  one-half  of  the  water  it  does  at 
first,  unless  the  soil  is  very  sandy  and  loose.  Remember  it  is  the  small  stream 
long  drawn  out  that  counts  and  gives  the  best  results. 

9F.  M.  Reynolds,  Delano. 


64  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

Practice  with  This  System. — Concerning  practice  with  the  dif- 
ferent vegetables  and  the  preparation  of  ridges  and  beds  for  them, 
Mr.  Reynolds  gives  the  following  suggestions: 

Plant  melons  and  winter  squash  seven  feet  apart  on  each  side  of  the 
ridge,  which  should  be  eight  feet  apart  for  these  varieties,  and  about  five  feet 
apart  for  corn,  beans,  summer  crook-neck  squash,  cucumbers,  and  tomatoes. 
After  preparing  the  ground  and  planting  the  seed  neither  the  ditch  nor  plants 
will  require  much  attention  more  than  to  keep  the  weeds  out.  For  the 
growth  of  other  vegetables,  such  as  peas,  cauliflower,  cabbage,  carrots,  parsnips, 
radish,  beets,  lettuce,  asparagus,  egg  plant,  spinach,  peppers,  onions,  garlic, 
rhubarb,  and  tomato  plants,  prepare  the  ground  by  forming  it  into  beds  four- 
teen inches  wide  and  two  inches  higher  in  the  center  than  on  either  ridge, 
with  a  small  trench  between  them  six  inches  wide  and  three  inches  deep. 
They  can  be  made  wider  and  deeper  if  a  large  amount  of  water  is  available. 
After  the  beds  are  prepared  run  the  water  through  them  and  recrossing  the 
beds  that  are  defective,  so  the  water  will  rise  to  a  uniform  height  on  each, 
within  about  one  inch  of  the  top.  Make  a  depression  on  each  side  of  the  bed 
two  and  one-half  inches  from  the  edge  with  a  hoe  and  one  and  one-half 
inches  deep.  Sow  the  seed  not  less  than  one-half  inch  apart  and  be  very 
careful  not  to  cover  the  seed  more  than  one-half  inch  deep.  Every  good  seed 
will  grow,  and  those  which  are  to  remain  in  the  rows  must  be  properly 
thinned  out.  When  tomato  plants  are  from  three  to  five  inches  tall,  trans- 
plant them  on  either  side  of  the  high  ridges,  five  feet  apart  in  the  row.  Trans- 
plant cabbage  and  egg  plants  when  they  are  from  two  to  three  inches  tall,  in 
vacant  beds,  the  former  eighteen  inches  apart  in  the  row  for  early  and  close 
heading  varieties,  and  twenty-eight  inches  apart  for  late  and  spreading  varie- 
ties, and  egg  plants  twenty-four  inches  apart  in  the  row.  A  pint  of  fine 
manure  from  the  cow-yard  placed  six  inches  below  the  surface  under  each 
plant  will  insure  a  cabbage  from  nearly  every  plant.  Pepper  plants  should 
be  transplanted  eighteen  inches  apart  in  the  row. 

Picturesque  Irrigation, — A  modification  of  the  permanent  ditch 
plan  is  quite  widely  practiced  on  the  sand  hills  south  of  San  Fran- 
cisco. The  water  is  lifted  from  wells  by  windmills,  the  discharge 
from  the  pump  being  taken  at  such  e;levation  that  it  will  flow  in  a 
small  flume  supported  by  a  trestle  to  the  highest  point  of  the  land 
to  be  irrigated.  Hence  the  water  is  carried  in  small  contour  ditches 
hither  and  thither  until  every  corner  of  the  very  irregular  slopes  is 
reached.  Short  lines  of  vegetables  are  planted  about  at  right 
angles  to  these  small  permanent  ditches  and  short  spurs  made  with 
the  hoe  so  that  the  water  is  brought  beside  each  individual  plant. 
As  the  slope!  is  so  broken  and  the  soil  so  open,  anything  like  uniform 
seepage  is  out  of  the  question.  The  appearance  of  these  gardens  is 
exceedingly  picturesque^  with  the  little  beds  tucked  in  here  and 
there,  showing  varying  shades  of  green  on  miniature  terraces  and 


FURROW   IRRIGATION  65 

slopes  and  flats  irregularly  intermingled  often  within  the  area  of  an 
acre  or  two — the  lines  of  the  mill  frame  and  flume  trestle  so  thin 
and  long  and  intercrossed  as  to  suggest  that  a  colossal  spider  had 
spun  her  web  upon  the  verdure.  All  this  is  hand  work  and  'back 
work  in  cultivation  and  irrigation,  in  carrying  manure  up  and  pro- 
duce down,  and  represents  a  fragment  of  the  south  of  Europe  cast 
upon  the  map  of  California. 

Small  Furrow  Distribution. — All  the  foregoing  methods  of  dis- 
tribution may  suggest  something  for  the  American  farm  garden  in 
California  providing  the  soil  and  situation  are  best  served  in  such 
ways,  but  for  the  most  part  the  farm  garden  will  be  upon  land  of 
moderate  slope  with  loams  which  take  water  well  and  are  fairly 
retentive  of  it.  Under  such  circumstances  the  distribution  of  water 
in  many  small  streams  along  furrows  drawn  by  a  small  plow,  ac- 
complishing complete  moistening  without  flooding  of  the  surface, 
is  the;  system  to  be  adopted  and  conscientiously  practiced.  It  is 
most  economical  of  water  not  only  in  the  first  application  but  by 
conservation  of  its  moisture  by  the  thorough  surface  cultivation 
which  must  follow  each  irrigation.  Water  is  carried  along  the 
ridge  or  ridges  of  the  tract  in  a  plank  flume,  of  dimensions  propor- 
tional to  the  size  of  the  area  to  be  irrigated,  and  with  many  open- 
ings, to  be  closed  or  opened  at  pleasure,  so  that  small  streams  of 
water  can  be  brought  out  into  many  small  furrows  and  allowed  to 
proceed  slowly  until  they  reach  the  bottom  where  the  surplus  may 
be  caught  in  a  cross-furrow  and  carried  to  other  uses.  By  this 
method  the  water  can  be  evenly  distributed  with  hardly  a  stroke 
of  hand  work  and  the  soil,  with  its  surface  always  open  to  access  of 
air,  and  never  allowed  to  compact  itself  around  the  plants,  affords 
conditions  perfectly  adapted  to  thrifty,  quick  growth  of  the  plants. 
This  method  conforms  best  with  the  most  economical  laying  off  of 
the  farm  garden,  which  will  be  urged  later  from  other  points  of 
view,  viz. :  the  planting  in  long  rows  with  uniform  interspaces  so 
that  horse-power  and  the  best  implements  can  be  employed  to  their 
fullest  extent  in  every  operation  from  the  seed  planting  to  the 
gathering  of  the  crop. 

Furrow  Irrigation  on  Hillsides. — It  is  often  desirable  to  make 
the  farm  garden  on  a  hillside  and  this  can  be  managed  by  horse 
work  without  terracing  more  easily  than  one  might  think  at  first. 
The  plan  must  be  to  work  nearly  on  contour  lines  in  laying  out  the 
rows  of  vegetables  and  in  the  subsequent  cultivation  and  irrigation. 


66  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

The  following  will  be  found  suggestive  in  regard  to  the  distribution 
of  water : 

The  water  is  delivered  from  a  flume  laid  down  the  hillside,  and  fitted 
with  cleats  at  each  hole  so  as  to  throw  off  enough  water  at  the  sides,  or 
sometimes  the  flume  is  laid  in  steps  connected  with  a  bit  of  covered  flume 
from  step  to  step.  The  latter  is  best  for  very  steep  hills,  though,  with  care, 
the  other  may  be  used  on  a  greater  slope  than  one  would  imagine.  Another 
flume  should  be  laid  at  the  end  of  the  furrows  to  carry  off  the  waste  water. 

The  contours  may  be  laid  out  by  any  one  with  a  carpenter's  common 
level.  Fifty-five  feet  to  the  mile  is  nearly  right  for  a  very  fine  stream  on 
most  soils.  And  this  is  about  one  foot  in  ninety-six,  or  two  inches  in  sixteen 
feet.  Therefore  take  a  sixteen-foot  plank  and  level  it  to  a  slope  of  two 
inches  in  its  whole  length.  Then  when  the  upper  edge  of  this  is  level  the  lower 
edge  will  represent  the  required  grade  for  your  ditch.  In  this  way  the  work 
can  be  done  very  rapidly. 

The  same  thing  is  equally  good  for  laying  common  little  flumes,  cement 
ditches,  etc.  But  in  earth,  one  should  determine  by  trial  the  amount  of  slope 
the  soil  will  stand  without  cutting  or  filling  up  with  sediment  or  refusing  to 
run  fast  enough  in  case  the  soil  is  very  porous.  A  mistake  of  a  few  inches 
in  a  hundred  feet  will  generally  not  be  serious,  but  the  more  nearly  exact  you 
can  get  it  the  better.  Every  approach  to  perfection  in  your  first  arrange- 
ments diminishes  your  future  work  and  annoyance. 

All  manner  of  stuff  is  now  raised  in  this  way  in  California  on  hillsides  that 
a  few  years  ago,  when  covered  with  brush,  seemed  too  steep  and  rough  even 
to  plow.  When  once  made  the  furrows  of  course  are  left  in  place  but  the 
water  finds  its  way  to  the  center  between  them  quite  as  well  as  on  more 
level  ground. 

Irrigation  by  Sprinkling. — Systems  of  iron  pipe  laid  below 
reach  of  plow  and  spade  and  furnished  with  stand  pipes  and  revolv- 
ing sprinklers,  or  other  showering  devices,  have  been  successfully 
used  to  a  limited  extent,  and  some  have  strongly  favored  them  in 
spite  of  the  considerable  cost  of  the  outfit.  They  are  worthy  of 
consideration  where  water  under  adequate  pressure  is  available. 
They  are  labor-saving,  but  they  encourage  neglect  of  cultivation, 
and  to  that  extent  arei  undesirable,  especially  on  soils  which  harden 
on  drying. 

Sub-irrigation  by  Tile  or  Pipes. — Californians  have  been  ex- 
perimenting with  subterranean  distribution  with  tile  or  specially 
constructed  pipes  and  outlets  for  probably  more  than  forty  years 
and  yet  none  of  the  proposed  systems  have  ever  come  into  use  ex- 
cept under  the  eye  of  the  inventor.  In  early  days  iron  troughs  inverted 
on  redwood  boards;  small  flumes  or  boxes  of  redwood  boards; 
bricks  set  on  edge  and  covered  with  boards;  drain  tile  with  and 
without  perforations — all  these  were  suggested,  given  trial,  and 


SUB-IRRIGATION  67 

abandoned.  All  experiments  proceeded  upon  the  plan  of  thus 
making  permanent  water  conduits  below  the  point  reached  in  spad- 
ing or  plowing,  and  they  all  became  inoperative.  The  failure  was 
usually  charged  to  the  filling  of  the  pipes  with  plant  roots  and  in 
some  cases  this  was  seen  to  be  the  reason.  In  other  cases  the  failure 
of  the  system  was  due  to  the  fact  that  in  light  soils  lacking  capil- 
larity, the  water  rapidly  sank  away  from  the  pipes  out  of  the  reach 
of  the  roots  and  shallow  rooting  plants  failed  though  there  was 
moisture  flowing  to  waste  through  a  pervious  subsoil.  Mr.  E.  M. 
Hamilton  of  East  Los  Angeles  invented  a  system  of  continuous 
cement  pipes  laid  by  a  machine  operating  in  the  trench  which  pre- 
vented access  of  roots  because  it  had  openings  only  at  intervals 
where  the  water  was  discharged  into  air  spaces  each  of  which  could 
be  seen  through  a  vertical  pipe  rising  to  the  surface  and  furnished 
with  a  cover.  This  has  worked  well  for  many  years  on  Mr.  Hamil- 
ton's place  for  the  irrigation  of  trees  or  other  deep  rooting  plants 
at  considerable  distances  apart,  for  which  use  it  seems-best  suited. 
To  fill  the  earth  with  such  pipes  with  openings  near  enough  together 
to  serve  for  shallow  rooting  vegetables,  is  appallingly  expensive, 
and  the  stand  pipes  cumber  the  surface  so  that  nothing  but  hantl 
spading  or  cultivating  could  be  done  without  destruction  of  them. 
It  would  be  cheaper  and  better  to  pipe  the  ground  with  iron  pipes 
and  brass  faucets  even  though  the  theoretical  advantage  of  subter- 
ranean application  had  be  be  abandoned. 

At  the  east  within  a  few  years  the  use  of  the  drain  tile  laid 
along  the  rows  of  vegetables  near  the  surface  has  given  the  best 
results  in  an  experimental  way.  By  this  plan  the  tile  are  to  be  taken 
up  and  relaid  for  each  crop,  which  can  be  quickly  done.  Water 
thus  administered  may  serve  well  in  soil  not  disposed  to  puddle 
down  or  possibly  may  be  more  successful  where  the  summer  air  is 
less  dry  and  soil  baking  less  active  than  in  California,  but  in  many 
of  our  garden  soils  the  soil  would  solidify,  and  even  if  moisture 
were  adequate  to  prevent  baking,  the  proper  entrance  of  air  would 
be  largely  prevented.  On  the  other  hand,  in  coarse  soils  water 
applied  underground  would  quickly  pass  out  of  reach  of  shallow 
rooting  plants. 

The  experience  of  Californians  is  against  any  such  arrange- 
ment of  soil  and  water.  Except  in  such  soils  as  have  already  been 
described  as  working  well  by  seepage  systems,  surface  application 
of  water  followed  by  thorough  surface  cultivation,  produces  as  a 


68  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

rule  the  best  combination  of  moisture,  heat,  aeration  and  rapid  root- 
extension,  which  pushes  the  plant  to  its  utmost  in  rapid  and  satis- 
factory growth. 

WINTER   IRRIGATION. 

Winter  irrigation  is  increasing  in  California  as  a  surety  that 
the  year's  water  supply  will  be  above  a  certain  minimum.  Decidu- 
ous trees  and  vines,  on  soil  that  is  fairly  retentive,  can  be  carried 
through  a  satisfactory  year's  growth  and  fruiting  with  good  culti- 
vation, by  artificially  soaking  the  soil  in  winter.  In  this  way  injury 
to  the  trees  or  vines  by  a  year  of  scant  rainfall  is  avoided.  The 
practice  has  not  the  same  value  in  garden  practice  because  there 
still  will  remain  the  demand  for  summer  irrigation  if  succession  of 
fresh  vegetables  is  to  be  secured.  But  for  ample  crops  of  staple 
field  vegetables  which  are  usually  grown  without  summer  irriga- 
tion, the  winter  soaking  method  is  of  the  same  importance  that  it 
is  with  fruit-trees — it  insures  ample  moisture  every  year. 

Fall  and  winter  irrigation  are  very  important  in  gardening  in 
regions  of  uncertain  rainfall  because  they  bring  the  soil  into  condi- 
t;on  for  the  early  planting  which  is  often  the  secret  of  satisfaction 
and  success.  In  southern  California  and  the  interior  of  the  central 
regions  of  the  state  as  well,  he  who  waits  for  rainfall  to  start  his 
gardening  often  loses  half  the  season's  producing  capacity.  In 
parts  of  the  state  the  rain  at  its  maximum  is  seldom  excessive,  con- 
sequently one  incurs  no  danger,  but  invites  every  benefit  by  wetting 
the  soil  well  and  going  to  work  at  least  with  the  hardier  vegetables 
while  the  autumn  sunshine  still  imparts  warmth  to  the  soil. 

The  use  of  winter  storm  water  often  results  in  a  considerable 
contribution  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil  in  the  form  of  silt  and  other 
materials  rich  in  plant  food. 

TEMPERATURE  OF  IRRIGATION  WATER 

It  is  a  fact  of  common  observation  that  a  considerable  amount 
of  water  either  from  cold  rains  or  from  cold  irrigation  water  may 
cause  a  "shock"  to  a  growing  plant  and  interfere  with  its  normal 
development.  This  fact  is  accounted  for  by  Professor  Hilgard  in 
this  way: 

£ince  the  capacity  of  water  for  heat  is  approximately  five  times  greater 
than  that  of*  the  average  soil,  equal  weights  being  considered,  it  follows  that 
the  temperature  of  the  soil  water  must  exert  a  controlling  influence  over  that 
of  the  soil.  It  is  not  surprising  then  that  the  occurrence  of  cold  or  warm 


MUST  BE   MOISTURE  ENOUGH  69 

rains  or  the  use  of  cold  or  warm  irrigation  water,  at  a  critical  period,  may 
largely  determine  the  success  or  failure  of  a  crop. 

It  is  therefore  often  essential  that  cold  water  from  a  well  or 
stream  often  needs  exposure  to  the  sun  in  a  reservoir,  or  by  run- 
ning a  distance  in  a  shallow  ditch  or  furrow,  before  reaching  the 
roots  of  the  plant.  No  temperature  gained  by  such  exposure  need 
be  considered  too  high. 

This  fact,  however,  has  sometimes  induced  too  great  expecta- 
tions from  the  use  of  hot  water  from  springs  or  wells  for  forcing 
early  vegetables.  Warm  air  is  essential  to  free  aerial  growth  of  the 
plant. 

HOW    MUCH    IRRIGATION    IS    NEEDED? 

It  is  impossible  to  answer  this  question  exactly  for  any  crop, 
but  it  can  be  approximated  more  nearly  for  an  orchard  or  vineyard 
or  a  field  crop  than  for  a  garden  which  should  be  held  up  to  its 
maximum  of  free  water  nearly  all  the  time.  Evidently  the  require- 
ment for  gardening  is  greater  than  for  any  other  cropping.  How 
much  water  will  be  required  to  hold  any  piece  of  land  up  to  its  best 
estate  of  moisture,  depends  upon  the  plant  grown,  the  soil  and  sub- 
soil, the  slope  and  exposure,  the  local  heat  and  dryness  of  the  air, 
the  rainfall,  etc.  The  quantity  can,  then,  only  be  determined  for 
each  piece  of  ground  with  the  data  of  its  conditions  and  environ- 
ment, and  the  observing  man  will  allow  the  plants  to  tell  him  by  their 
vigor  and  speed  of  growth  how  the  supply  suits  them. 

It  is  possible  to  tell  how  much  water  will  bring  a  certain  depth 
of  soil  into  the  best  condition  for  growth  and  working.  With  this 
knowledge  the  gardener  can  more  rationally  follow  the  results  of 
his  observation  of  the  plants  themselves.  The  following  are  the 
conclusions  of  the  late  Professor  F.  H.  King  from  very  careful  in- 
vestigation and  experiment: 

The  maximum  capacity  of  upland  field  soils  for  water  ranges  from  about 
eighteen  per  cent  of  their  dry  weight  for  the  light  sandy  types  to  about 
thirty  per  cent  for  the  heavy  clayey  varieties,  while  the  amounts  of  water 
these  soils  should  contain  in  order  that  plants  may  thrive  in  them  best  is 
from  twelve  to  fourteen  per  cent  for  the  former  and  from  eighteen  to  twenty 
per  cent  for  the  latter.  The  growth  of  plants  will  be  seriously  checked  in 
sandy  soils  when  the  water  content  falls  below  eight  per  cent,  and  in  heavy, 
clayey  types  when  it  falls  below  fourteen  per  cent  of  the  dry  weight  of  the 
soil. 

The  dry  weight  of  a  light  sandy  soil  and  subsoil  will  average  about  one 
hundred  and  five  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  and  the  heavy  clayey  type  about 


70  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

eighty  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  Hence  the  maximum  amount  of  water  per 
cubic  foot  of  soil  would  be  about  twenty-four  pounds  for  the  clay  and  eighteen 
and  nine-tenths  pounds  for  the  sand.  This  being  true,  four  and  six-tenths 
inches  of  water  on  the  level  would  completely  saturate  the  surface  foot  of 
heavy  clay  soil,  were  it  entirely  dry  to  begin  with,  while  three  and  six-tenths 
inches  would  place  the  sandy  soil  in  a  similar  condition. 

But  since  water  should  be  applied  as  soon  as  the  water  content  of  the 
sandy  soil  falls  to  eight  per  cent  and  that  of  the  clayey  soil  to  fourteen  per 
cent,  it  follows  that  under  these  conditions  ten  and  five-tenths  pounds  of 
water,  or  two  inches,  is  the  maximum  amount  which  would  be  needed  to 
fill  the  surface  foot  of  sandy  soil  and  twelve  and  eight-tenths  pounds,  or  two 
and  forty-six  one-hundredths  inches,  is  enough  to  fill  the  surface  foot  of 
clay  soil. 

If  we  consider  the  second  foot  of  soil  to  have  been  dried  out  to  a  cor- 
responding extent,  and  that  it  is  desirable  to  saturate  this  with  water  also, 
then  the  amounts  just  stated  would  need  to  be  doubled,  four  inches  being 
demanded  for  the  sandy  soil  and  four  and  ninety-two  one-hundredths  inches 
for  the  clayey  soil.  It  is  quite  certain,  however,  that  such  an  application  of 
water  to  a  field  at  one  time  would  result  in  the  percolation  of  a  considerable 
amount  of  this  water  below  the  depth  of  root  action,  and  hence  in  a  con- 
siderable loss  of  it  unless  a  large  crop  were  growing  upon  the  land  at  the 
time.  It  appears,  therefore,  that  the  amounts  of  water  which  may  be  applied 
to  a  field  at  one  time  will  lie  between  two  and  five  inches  in  depth  over  its 
whole  surface. 

How  often  this  watering  may  need  to  be  repeated  it  is  not  possible  to 
state  in  anything  like  definite  terms,  but  practical  experience  shows  that  as 
a  rough  average  the  intervals  between  watering  where  maximum  yields  are 
sought  can  not  much  exceed  seven  to  fourteen  days,  the  time  being  shortest 
when  the  crop  is  making  its  most  vigorous  growth. 

This  account  is  useful  as  showing  how  much  the  soil  may  be 
expected  to  hold,  consequently  the  maximum  to  be  considered  in 
application.  The  times  of  repetition  naturally  have  to  be  indefinite 
because  rates  of  evaporation  and  leaching  are  so  variable.  If  the 
reader  should  get  the  idea  from  these  calculations  that  he  ought  to 
have  a  generous  water  supply  for  the  best  summer  growth  of  vege- 
tables, he  will  start  right  at  least.  He  will  soon  learn  how  to  use 
the  water  to  the  best  advantage. 

Adequate  Use  of  Water  Essential. — Beyond  any  theoretical 
computation  of  the  amount  of  water  needed  it  is  one  of  the  plainest 
teachings  of  California  experience  that  good,  thorough  soaking  of 
the  ground  is  the  secret  of  satisfactory  results.  Surface  sprinkling 
without  penetration  is  a  delusion  even  in  lawn  growing.  It  gives 
the  impression  of  moisture  when  the  roots  of  the  plant  may  be  fam- 
ishing in  dry  ground.  Pouring  on  water  from  a  watering  pot, 
though  it  be  once  every  day,  will  make  a  brick  to  enclose  the  plant 


IRRIGATION   AND  SOIL  FERTILITY  71 

stem  and  roots  if  the  soil  be  prone  to  bake.  On  larger  scale  work 
it  has  been  fully  demonstrated  that  for  productiveness  a  small  piece 
of  ground  thoroughly  soaked  with  water  and  then  as  thoroughly 
cultivated  on  the  surface  to  kill  weeds  and  prevent  the  waste  of 
moisture  into  the  air  by  evaporation,  is  preferable  to  twice  the  sur- 
face only  half  watered.  One  very  thorough  wetting,  with  good 
cultivation,  will  produce  better  results  than  several  superficial  water- 
ings. And  in  this  way  the  water  can  be  used  the  most  economi- 
cally by  accomplishing  the  most  good  with  the  least  labor. 

Another  very  important  point  is  to  keep  the  moisture  supply 
always  adequate.  One  who  waits  till  the  plants  show  distress  has 
lost  his  chance.  One  of  our  experienced  growers  very  pertinently 
says :  "If  we  allow  our  ground  to  get  the  least  bit  dry  the  vege- 
tables are  stunted  in  growth,  and  then  it  takes  several  days  to  catch 
up  again  if  it  ever  does.  I  hold  that  a  stunted  vegetable  is  as  bad 
as  a  stunted  calf  or  pig.  It  is  never  as  good  as  if  it  was  pushed 
right  along  from  the  beginning." 

RELATION    OF    IRRIGATION    TO    SOIL    FERTILITY. 

It  must  always  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  adequate  moist- 
ure must  always  be  accompanied  by  adequate  supplies  of  plant  food 
in  the  soil.  The  gardener  who  keeps  his  soil  rich  gets  the  greatest 
return  from  the  water  he  uses,  and  attention  must  be  paid  to  the 
suggestions  in  the  chapter  on  Fertilization.  This  has  always  been 
demonstrated  by  experience,  and  an  interesting  measure  of  the  fact 
has  been  deduced  from  experimentation  by  Dr.  J.  A.  Widtsoe  of  the 
Utah  Agricultural  College.  He  shows  that  a  given  amount  of  moist- 
ure will  produce  at  least  30  per  cent  more  crop  on  rich  soils  than  on 
poor  ones,  and  the  crop  grown  on  the  rich  soil  will  contain  at  least 
45  per  cent  more  food  value  than  that  grown  on  the  poor  one.  In 
other  words,  the  moisture  that  would  produce  100  pounds  of  crop 
on  a  poor  soil  would  produce  at  least  130  pounds  on  a  rich  soil,  and 
the  crop  raised  on  the  rich  soil  would  contain  on  an  average  45  per 
cent  more  protein,  which  would  still  further  increase  the  food-value 
of  the  crop  grown  on  the  rich  soil  to  the  equivalent  of  188  pounds 
grown  on  poor  soil ;  almost  twice  as  much  food  value  on  the  rich  soil 
as  on  the  poor  one  from  the  same  amount  of  moisture.  Then  again 
the  rich  soil  will  hold  more  moisture,  and  if  there  is  plenty  of 
moisture  the  rich  soil  can  grow  two  or  three  times  as  much  crop  as* 
the  poor  soil  and  with  a  food  value  that  is  higher. 


CHAPTER   VI. 
GARDEN  DRAINAGE  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

It  may  be  remark^,  as  a  generalization  based  upon  a  wide 
view  of  our  two-season  year,  that  the  secret  of  success  in  California 
vegetable  growing  consists  in  getting  plants  "out  of  the  wet"  at 
one  time  and  into  it  at  another.  It  would,  perhaps,  be  more  exact 
to  say  that  success  lies  in  securing  generous  but  not  excessive  moist- 
ure at  all  times,  and  this  is  essential  to  the  best  growth  of  the  plant 
in  any  climate.  And  yet  so  strikingly  antithetical  are  our  moisture- 
extremes  at  the  heights  of  the  two  seasons,  and  so  characteristic, 
both  in  times  and  methods,  are  the  policies  and  practices  by  which 
we  modify  both  to  the  best  advantage,  that  the  world-wide  princi- 
ples to  which  they  conform  are  out  of  sight  of  the  casual  observer. 
For  it  is  not  only  that  we  have  always  to  guard  against  extremes  of 
saturation  and  aridity  and  keep  the  plant  along  the  lines  of  suffi- 
ciency— that  is  the  universal  proposition.  In  addition  to  this 
California,  speaking  generally,  has  to  do  special  work  against  one 
extreme  at  one  time  and  against  the  other  extreme  at  another  time ; 
hence  the  opening  remark. 

Regulation  of  moisture  in  California  either  involves  more  con- 
siderations than  are  usually  recognized  in  humid  climates  or  in- 
volves them  in  higher  degree  and  imputes  to  them  increased  signifi- 
cance. Choice  of  location  and  soil ;  time  and  method  of  planting  and 
cultivation ;  the  choice  of  the  crop  with  reference  to  natural  moisture 
supply  and  the  atmospheric  conditions ;  the  employment  of  irriga- 
tion; and  the  desirability,  or  otherwise,  of  artificial  drainage  facili- 
ties— all  these  are  factors  which  are  perhaps  more  sharply  concerned 
in  results  here  than  in  humid  climates,  because  our  extremes,  in  all 
except  low  temperatures,  are  more  exacting.  Correct  practice  here 
gives  grand  results,  but  ill-timed  or  illy  adapted  practice  does  not 
give  merely  less  satisfactory  results:  it  may  invite  failure.  Our 
drainage  proposition  must  always  be  conditioned  upon  proper  con- 
servation of  moisture,  and,  as  will  be  seen  as  we  proceed  with  the 

(72) 


BENEFITS  OF  DRAINAGE  73 

discussion,  contemplated  artificial  drainage  may  have  the  power  to 
make  or  ruin  a  crop  if  its  action  is  not  intelligently  employed,  or  in- 
telligently rejected,  as  the  case  may  require. 

Benefits  of  Drainage. — It  may  be  admitted  at  the  outset  that 
in  regions  of  heavy  rainfall  or  in  locations  subject  to  much  percola- 
tion from  higher  lands,  underdrainage  may  be  necessary  to  satis- 
factory use  of  the  land  in  winter  gardening  unless  the  soil  is  deep 
and  free  enough  to  readily  dispose  of  the  surplus  water.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  it  is  necessary  in  some  cases,  and  gratifying  results 
follow  in  lowering  the  .ground  water,  admitting  air,  warming  the 
soil,  making  it  hospitable  to  the  plant,  rendering  fertility  available 
and  lengthening  the  growing  season  of  the  plant  both  by  these 
services  and  by  making  the  soil  sooner  amenable  to  tillage  and  sus- 
ceptible of  better  tilth.  All  these  are  general  drainage  principles 
applicable  here  as  elsewhere  and  in  some  soils  and  situations  the 
same  method  of  application  is  best,  viz. :  thorough  under-drainage 
preferably  with  tile,  but  also  attainable  with  trenches  partly 
filled  with  rock,  or  with  regular  runways  with  placed  stones  or  poles 
or  boards  or  whatever  may  be  most  available  to  the  person  at  the 
time.  In  drainage  for  garden  purposes,  however,  it  is  not  neces- 
sary that  the  water  table  should  be  lowered  as  far  as  is  essential 
to  the  satisfactory  growth  of  trees,  nor  is  it  desirable  generally  that 
it  should  be.  Tile  laid  two  feet  from  the  surface  will  answer  in  most 
cases  if  the  land  lies  well  for  the  outflow  of  the  drainage. 

Conserving  Moisture. — The  general  purpose  in  California  gar- 
dening, must  be  to  save  moisture,  not  to  facilitate  its  escape.  It  is 
especially  important  in  an  arid  country  that  the  lower  strata  of  the 
soil  should  be  a  storage  reservoir  for  the  use  of  the  plant  in  the  dry 
season.  This  fact  underlies  the  recommendations  for  cultivation 
which  will  be  given  in  a  later  chapter,  but  it  also  has  intimate  rela- 
tions with  the  subject  of  drainage.  Evidently  recourse  to  drainage 
should  not  endanger  the  generously  adequate  moisture  supply  which 
the  plant  needs,  and  for  this  reason  the  almost  universal  exhortation 
in  gardening  treatises  for  humid  climates :  "first  of  all  deeply  drain 
your  soil,"  either  subjects  the  trusting  Californian  to  a  useless  ex- 
pense or,  worse  than  that,  makes  his  land  less  suited  to  his  purpose 
than  it  was  before  the  expenditure  was  made. 

For  it  should  be  noted:  first,  that  our  light  deep  loams  which 
are  chiefly  used  for  garden  purposes,  can  naturally  dispose  of  all 
the  surplus  water  which  the  clouds  afford  them ;  second,  our  heavier 


74  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES 

soils  sometimes  make  a  great  surface  show  of  saturation  when  the 
lower  layers  have  really  far  less  than  their  holding  capacity,  because 
percolation  is  slow,  not  only  by  nature  of  the  soil  but  by  the  lack  of 
thorough  tillage  which  would  help  to  hold  a  large  precipitation 
until  the  soil  could  absorb  it;  third,  our  soils  dispose  of  moisture 
very  rapidly  during  the  dry  intervals  of  the  rainy  season,  and  this 
can  be  increased  by  winter  cultivation  which  should  not  aim  to  fine 
the  surface  but  to  open  it  to  the  air;  fourth,  by  their  active  winter 
growth,  the  plants  themselves  pump  from  the  surface  layer  volumes 
of  water,  the  escape  of  which  opens  the  way  for  capillarity  to  re- 
lieve lower  layers  of  their  surplus,  and  thus  the  active  roots  help  to 
prepare  the  way  for  their  own  farther  extension. 

Really  then  what  California  soils  need  for  winter  garden  pur- 
poses in  natural  surface  drainage,  viz.,  downward  into  thirsty  lower 
layers;  upward  into  the  air  by  evaporation  from  earth-surfaces  or 
plant-surfaces.  Where  this  is  not  adequate  to  the  relief  of  surface 
saturation  and  consequent  preparation  for  seed  sowing,  very  simple 
artificial  surface  drainage  is  usually  effective.  This  can  be  mainly 
accomplished  with  the  plow,  first  by  opening  drainage  furrows  at 
proper  intervals,  and  this  is  often  all  that  is  needed  to  dispose  of 
surplus  water;  second,  by  ridging  with  the  plow  which  prepares 
long  seed  beds  a  little  above  the  general  surface  and  at  the  same 
time  leaves  channels  for  the  escape  of  the  water ;  third,  by  opening 
deeper  surface-drains  to  act  directly  or  to  receive  and  speed  the 
departure  of  the  outflow  from  the  open  furrows.  All  of  these  forms 
of  treatment,  selected  according  to  the  degree  of  the  need  of  drain- 
age, have  proved  widely  satisfactory  and  have  facilitated  magnifi- 
cent winter  growth  of  vegetables  upon  heavy  adobe  soils  in  some 
of  our  regions  of  heaviest  winter  rains.  The  action  is  quicker  than 
underdraining  because  percolation  is  notably  slow  in  such  soil.  It 
removes  the  surplus  from  the  surface  just  at  the  time  that  its  absence 
is  most  desirable  and  it  leaves  the  moisture  stored  below  to  rise  as 
the  demand  for  it  advances.  On  the  other  hand  underdrainage, 
where  it  is  not  imperatively  demanded  by  exceptional  conditions,  has 
clearly  acted  too  slowly  to  bring  the  surface  speedily  into  satis- 
factory condition  and  has  acted  too  long  in  drawing  away  more 
water  than  desirable  from  below  and  has  then  continued  as  a  very 
effective  hot-air  system  for  farther  drying  of  soil-substance  which 
should  have  retained  more  moisture  to  supply  the  plant  and  foster 
capillary  action  from  still  lower  layers.  In  the  writer's  own  ex- 


WHEN  TO  DRAIN  LANDS  75 

perience  shallow-rooting  plants  have  dwindled  over  tile  lines  while 
those  midway  between  the  lines  were  growing  rapidly. 

Conditions  Determining  Recourse  to  Under  drainage. — It  may 
be  well  to  specify  a  few  of  the  conditions  which  should  determine 
whether  underdrainage  should  be  provided  in  land  under  considera- 
tion for  vegetable  growing.  Of  course  the  claim  already  alluded 
to,  that  any  piece  of  soil  selected  for  gardening  must  be  first  under- 
drained,  is  an  exaggeration  anywhere  in  the  world  probably,  because 
there  are  areas  of  naturally  well-drained  soil  everywhere.  Enough 
has  been  said  of  California  garden  soils  to  show  that  the  most  of 
them  are  of  this  character  and  that  no  probable  amount  of  rainfall 
would  injure  them.  The  exception  has  also  been  sufficiently  char- 
acterized in  the  chapter  on  soils. 

To  reach  assurance  for  or  against  underdrainage  in  particular 
cases  one  has  to  consider  the  soil,  the  rainfall,  the  character  of  the 
root  growth  to  be  ministered  to,  the  growing  season  of  the  crop  and 
the  practice  of  irrigation. 

The  mere  amount  of  rainfall  is  so  intimately  related  to  soil 
texture,  depth,  subsoil,  slope  and  exposure  that,  considered  alone, 
it  affords  no  guide  whatever  to  the  need  of  artificial  drainage. 
There  are  many  situations  receiving  an  annual  rainfall  of  forty  to 
sixty  inches  which  not  only  do  not  need  underdrainage  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  irrigation  must  be  employed  as  early  as  May  to  supply 
the  requirements  of  shallow-rooting  plants.  These  are  either  coarse, 
leachy  soils  or  else  shallow  loams  lying  upon  sloping  and  porous 
bed-rock.  Leaving  these  out  of  consideration  it  is  doubtful  whether 
any  land,  even  of  quite  retentive  character,  receiving  a  rainfall  of 
not  more  than  twenty-five  inches,  distributed  as  California  rainfall 
usually  is,  needs  underdrainage  for  garden  purposes.  Of  course 
this  claim  clearly  presupposes  that  the  land  in  question  does  not 
receive  any  considerable  amount  of  water  by  overflow  or  underflow 
by  seepage  from  higher  land.  Any  such  rainfall  as  noted  can  prob- 
ably be  controlled  by  such  surface  use  or  surface  release  as  have 
already  been  described,  or  by  such  early  and  deep  cultivation  as  the 
garden  should  receive,  there  can  be  stored  in  the  soil  the  moderate 
residuum  remaining  from  the  amount  of  rainfall  indicated,  and 
under  favorable  circumstances  a  greater  rainfall  can  be  thus  dis- 
posed of. 

Deep  rooting  plants  like  fruit  trees  will  of  course  be  injured 
by  saturation  of  the  subsoil  which  would  not  injure  garden  vege- 


76  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

tables,  therefore  underdrainage  of  the  orchard  is  a  different  propo- 
sition from  that  of  the  garden.  It  should  be  stated  for  the  distant 
reader  that  the  term  garden  in  California  is  not  understood  to  in- 
clude fruit  trees,  except  in  villages  or  suburban  places. 

The  growing  season  of  the  vegetable  crop  is  also  related  to 
the  matter  of  underdrainage.  While  the  winter  garden  on  a  re- 
tentive soil  in  a  region  of  quite  large  rainfall,  may  be  greatly  im- 
proved by  underdrainage,  the  summer  growth  of  the  same  plants 
perhaps,  and  of  field  crops  of  shallow  rooting  vegetables,  may  be 
benefited  by  such  surface  treatment  during  the  winter  as  shall  pro- 
mote the  absorption  and  retention  of  the  whole  rainfall  in  the  soil 
and  subsoil.  This  practice  may  insure  the  perfection  of  a  crop 
without  irrigation  which  could  not  be -grown  on  a  less  retentive  soil 
nor  on  one  currently  drained  of  its  surplus  water. 

The  practice  of  irrigation  may  create  a  need  for  underdrain- 
age which  may  not  exist  on  land  used  for  rainfall-gardening.  If 
the  soil  is  naturally  well  drained  this  need  will  not  however  occur 
unless  the  natural  escape  of  surplus  water  has  been  destroyed  by 
rise  of  the  bottom  water  which  has,  in  some  large  districts  in  Cali- 
fornia, followed  excessive  irrigation,  and  the  seepage  of  water  from 
leaky  ditches.  Especially  unfortunate  too  has  it  been  that  this  rise 
of  the  ground  water  has  brought  within  reach  of  capillary  action 
and  surface  evaporation,  alkaline  salts  which  are  destructive  to  vege- 
tation.2 But  here  again  the  growth  of  vegetables  can  be  success- 
fully pursued  on  lands  with  water  too  near  the  surface  to  favor  fruit 
trees,  providing  the  rise  of  alkali  does  not  occur.  For  the  growth  of 
vegetables  then,  it  is  not  generally  imperative  that  the  land  be  under- 
drained  even  if  irrigation  is  practiced  though  there  are  cases  of 
retentive  soils  in  which  this  is  desirable.  In  irrigation  in  a  humid 
climate  where  a  heavy  downfall  of  rain  may  immediately  follow  a 
saturation  by  irrigation,  underdrainage  is  a  safeguard.  California 
with  a  rainless  summer,  is  freed  from  this  danger. 

Too  great  emphasis,  even  to  indulgence  in  repetition,  can 
hardly  be  placed  upon  the  point  of  view  held  in  this  work.  We 
are  dealing  for  the  most  part  with  plants  which  are  used  before 
maturity  and  in  which  large  free  growth  of  foliage,  stem  and  seed 
vessel  are  the  points  desired  and  not  mature  seed.  Most  of  these 
plants  are  also  shallow-rooted  and  are  concerned  in  the  lower  layers 


2A  full   exposition  of  this  matter  may  be   found  in  the  publications  of 
the   University   of   California,   Berkeley,   on   "alkali    soils." 


IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE  77 

of  soil  not  as  a  place  for  root-activity,  but  rather  as  a  reservoir  of 
moisture  and  a  storehouse  of  plant  food  which  shall  come  to  them 
dissolved  in  the  upward  movement  of  abundant  water.  Conse- 
quently these  plants  do  not  require  the  degree  of  soil  dryness  which 
best  ministers  to  maturing  processes  nor  do  they  need  such  deep 
penetration  of  air  as  is  needed  to  make  subsoils  hospitable  for  deep- 
rooting  plants.  They  are  plants,  too,  which  need  the  maximum  per- 
centages of  moisture  within  reach  to  secure  the  quick  growth  and 
succulence  which  makes  them  delicious  and  profitable.  For  all  these 
reasons,  the  view  of  underdrainage  here  presented  is  somewhat  at 
variance  with  orthodox  drainage  tenets  held  in  humid  climates  and 
is  also  widely  diverse  from  views  which  the  writer  holds  with  refer- 
ence to  the  drainage  requirements  of  fruit  trees. 


CHAPTER   VII. 
CULTIVATION. 

The  timely  and  thorough  performance  of  the  several  acts 
which,  in  accordance  with  the  prevailing  local  conditions,  constitute 
good  tillage  are  indispensable  to  success  in  California  vegetable 
growing.  No  matter  how  favorable  the  natural  conditions  or  how 
generous  the  other  provisions  made  by  the  grower,  to  be  dilatory 
or  slack  in  cultivation  is  to  seriously  endanger,  if  not  to  actually 
forfeit,  the  final  reward. 

The  American  pioneers  were  quick  to  see  that  the  energetic 
use  of  the  good  tools  to  which  they  had  been  trained  in  their  old 
homes  would  bring  marvelous  production  from  lands  previously 
held  at  grazing  value,  and,  beginning  with  this  assurance,  they 
proceeded  by  lessons  of  observation  and  experience  until  they 
learned  proper  times  and  ways  of  working  under  the  novel  natural 
conditions  which  surrounded  them.  They  also  accomplished  modi- 
fications in  tools  for  tillage,  which,  from  a  local  point  of  view,  are 
notable  improvements,  and  they  devised  new  forms  to  meet  special 
conditions  or  purposes.  By  this  empirical  method  they  ministered 
to  their  own  success  and  incidentally  demonstrated  the  truth  of  some 
advanced  theories  of  tillage  which  had  won  but  slight  recognition 
from  the  conservative  spirit  of  the  older  countries.  It  is  an  inter- 
esting fact  also  that  prevailing  California  practice,  in  some  import- 
ant regards,  accords  more  closely  with  principles  deduced  from 
elaborate  experimentation  by  the  most  acute  and  patient  students 
of  soil  physics,  than  does  the  common  practice  of  older  countries. 
It  is  in  some  sense  a  grim  satisfaction  for  Californians  to  feel  that 
critics  who  have  denounced  some  California  tillage  practices  as 
slack  and  unthrifty,  not  only  do  not  know  our  conditions  but  are 
not  aware  that  their  own  practices  are  in  contravention  of  general 
principles  with  which  ours  closely  agree. 

With  tillage,  as  with  other  gardening  duties  to  which  refer- 
ence has  been  made,  there  are  in  California  wider  extremes  to  be 

(78) 


TILLAGE  FOR  MOISTURE  79 

mastered,  and  methods  are  therefore  strikingly  diverse.  Tillage 
prepares  the  seed  bed,  facilitates  germination  and  root-extension, 
and  fosters  the  benign  processes  of  soil  warmth  and  aeration  here 
as  elsewhere.  It  also  holds  the  same  relation  to  soil-moisture  here 
as  elsewhere,  but  its  services  in  this  particular  are  more  conspicuous 
because  the  need  is  greater,  as  intimated  in  previous  chapters. 

The  common  California  conception  of  the  value  of  tillage 
naturally  seizes  upon  this  aspect  of  the  case  and  asserts  that  the 
chief  offices  of  soil  working  are  first  to  get  as  much  moisture  as 
possible  into  the  soil  and,  second,  to  keep  it  there.  The  efficacy  of 
certain  ways  and  times  of  tillage  to  assist  in  the  escape  of  surplus 
moisture  is  of  course  known  to  those  who  have  this  work  to  do,  but 
the  area  in  which  such  acts  are  called  for  is  comparatively  small. 
It  is  quite  important,  however,  that  the  vegetable  grower  should 
have  it  in  mind  and  it  will  be  mentioned  later. 


TILLAGE  TO  RECEIVE   MOISTURE. 

This  involves  both  time  and  method.  The  importance  of  early 
work  in  the  garden  has  been  incidentally  mentioned  and  will  be 
farther  urged  hereafter.  With  the  rainfall-vegetable  grower,  early 
plowing  of  the  land,  or  early  digging  of  the  small  garden,  is  the 
first  of  a  series  of  timely  acts  which  are  neglected  at  great  peril. 

Summer  Fallow  as  Preparation  for  Vegetable  Planting. — The 
best  way  to  be  early  with  one  season  is  to  begin  in  the  previous  one, 
if  possible.  A  bare  but  frequently-stirred  summer  fallow  is  the  best 
preparation  for  a  garden.  A  piece  of  stubble  or  new  land  deeply 
plowed  and  subsoiled  and  left  unharrowed  in  the  fall  or  early  winter, 
cross-plowed  in  the  spring,  and  then  worked  with  a  cultivator  once 
a  month  during  the  dry  season,  is  brought  to  the  opening  of  the 
rainfall  garden  season  in  good  condition  from  at  least  three  points 
of  view:  first,  it  has  been  cleaned  of  many  weeds;  second,  it  has 
been  improved  in  tilth  and  fertility  and,  third,  it  has  a  storage  of 
moisture  from  the  previous  season's  rainfall.  Such  a  piece  of  land 
can  be  deeply  plowed  at  the  opening  of  the  rainy  season,  and  can  be 
at  once  planted  with  vegetables  for  winter  use  which  are  hardy  in 
the  locality  and  will  carry  them  along  well  with  its  content  of  stored 
moisture,  even  if  there  be  very  little  rain  during  the  early  fall 
months.  Because  of  its  deeply  stirred  surface,  freedom  from  hard- 
pan  from  previous  cultivation,  and  moist  subsoil,  it  is  in  its  best 


80  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

absorptive  condition  and  by  subsequent  shallow  working  as  each 
vegetable  is  disposed  of,  rotation  or  succession  can  proceed  on  the 
same  ground  and  with  the  advancing  winter  and  its  added  rainfall, 
planting  of  less  hardy  vegetables  can  be  made  until  the  frost-free 
period  arrives  and  the  garden  will  go  out  into  the  spring  and  sum- 
mer growth  of  the  whole  list  of  hardy  and  tender  plants  with  ample 
moisture  to  carry  them  to  perfection  during  the  dry  season. 

Early  Beginning  for  Work  the  Same  Season. — But  it  is  not 
always  possible  to  give  the  year  of  rest  and  cleaning  and  moisture- 
saving,  desirable  as  it  is.  In  that  case  the  plowing  must  be  done 
dry  or  the  land  deeply  irrigated  before  plowing,  or  the  plowing 
deferred  until  the  rains  sufficiently  moisten  the  soil  for  deep  plow- 
ing. This  last  method  usually  limits  the  practice  of  autumn  garden- 
ing and  emphasizes  the  desirability  of  a  water  supply  for  irrigation. 
Sub-soiling  may  also  be  done  with  advantage  if  the  rainfall  of  the 
region  is  generous;  if  not,  there  is  too  great  danger  that  much  of 
the  moisture  may  go  out  of  reach  of  the  shallow-rooting  plant. 
It  is  usually  not  as  safe  to  plant  as  early  on  newly  plowed  land  as 
upon  replowed  summer  fallow,  for,  unless  the  fall  rains  are  above 
the  average,  the  plants  may  be  less  thrifty  than  those  planted  later 
when  full  moisture  is  assured.  This  is  of  course  a  matter  for  local 
determination  as  it  is  conditioned  upon  local  rainfall. 

Even  if  for  any  reason  it  is  not  thought  desirable  to  plant  vege- 
tables in  the  open  air  until  February,  and  this  is  a  practice  in  locali- 
ties where  fall  and  early  winter  temperatures  are  rather  low,  still 
the  early  plowing  is  necessary  to  moisture-saving  and  cross-plowing 
should  follow  in  preparation  for  planting. 

Land  designed  for  spring  planting  of  tender  vegetables  should 
also  receive  early  and  thorough  fall  plowing  and  a  subsequent  winter 
plowing  or  spring  plowing  before  the  weed  growth  becomes  too 
heavy  for  turning  under  or  so  coarse  that  plowing  under  will  make 
a  non-retentive  soil  still  more  prone  to  drying  out  the  following 
summer. 

TILLAGE  TO  CONSERVE   MOISTURE. 

Tillage  to  receive  moisture  designs  to  open  the  soil  and  to 
assist  percolation  with  a  view  to  prevent  surface  flow  and  to  absorb 
the  rainfall.  Tillage  to  save  moisture  aims  to  reduce  evaporation 
to  a  minimum.  In  a  firm  soil  moisture  rises  by  capillary  attraction 
and  is  rapidly  removed  from  the  surface  by  evaporation.  A  light 


HOW    MOISTURE    IS    CONSERVED  81 

soil  has  less  capillarity  than  a  heavy  one.  A  sandy  soil  has  less  than 
a  clay,  but  both  lose  water  by  surface  evaporation  until,  in  an  arid 
climate,  plants  will  die  of  thirst  unless  they  be  by  nature  drought 
resisting.  Garden  vegetables  are  not  of  that  character;  in  fact 
quite  the  reverse.  Consequently  some  means  must  be  adopted  to 
prevent  the  moisture  which  is  rising  in  the  soil  from  reaching  con- 
tact with  the  outer  air.  This  can  be  done  by  placing  a  covering 
upon  the  compact  portion  of  the  soil  so  that  the  air  shall  not  have 
free  access  to  it.  Covering  with  a  sufficient  amount  of  almost  any 
coarse  material,  such  as  is  commonly  known  as  a  mulch,  will  answer. 
But  the  use  of  coarse  manure  or  rotten  straw  or  sawdust  or  any- 
thing of  that  sort,  is  troublesome  and  expensive  and  otherwise 
objectionable,  although,  it  has  an  acknowledged  place  in  garden 
practice,  as  will  be  shown  later. 

The  Earth  Mulch. — California  practice  has  made  the  widest 
application  of  the  truth  that  a  finely  pulverized  surface  layer  of 
sufficient  depth  is  an  effective  mulch.  Pulverizing  the  soil  widens 
the  distance  between  its  particles  and  consequently  destroys  its 
capillarity  until  by  the  action  of  moisture,  either  in  the  form  of 
liquid  or  vapor,  it  becomes  again  compacted  to  a  degree  which  re- 
stores its  power  to  transmit  moisture.  The  cultivator  has  it  then 
within  his  power  to  spread  a  mulch  and  check  evaporation  simply 
by  fine  and  frequent  pulverization  of  the  surface  layer  by  cultivation. 
It  is  this  ability  which  enables  the  California  horticulturist  to  trans- 
form the  lower  layers  of  his  soil  into  a  reservoir,  and  to  profit  by 
the  natural  tendency  of  the  moisture  to  rise  in  the  compact  soil  until 
it  reaches  the  point  where  the  pulverized  layer  checks  its  advance. 
This  practice  makes  possible  an  achievement  which  seems  almost 
incredible  to  workers  in  humid  climates,  viz. :  the  growing  of  a 
succulent  crop  from  seeding  to  harvest  without  the  use  of  a  drop 
of  water  either  by  rain  or  irrigation,  and  it  is  this  practice,  coupled 
with  the  deeper  rooting  habit  of  plants  which  is  induced  by  it,  which 
enables  our  trees  and  field  crops  to  grow  thriftily  and  produce 
heavily  during  months  of  drought,  while  a  few  weeks  of  drought 
bring  distress  to  plants  in  humid  climates. 

But  the  pulverized  surface  layer  must  do  more  than  arrest  the 
capillary  rise  of  moisture  before  it  reaches  the  surface :  it  must  check 
it  at  a  point  out  of  reach  of  the  free  entrance  of  air  to  the  loose, 
layer,  consequently  the  degree  of  pulverization  and  the  depth  of 
the  loose  layer  are  factors  to  be  carefully  observed.  It  is  not  enough 


82  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES 

to  grind  an  inch  or  two  of  the  surface  to  powder.  The  free  move- 
ment of  air  through  this  shallow  layer  at  least  in  our  summer  air 
with  its  exceptional  thirst,  will  proceed  with  evaporation  from  the 
too  thinly  covered  compact  portion  and  the  loss  of  moisture  will  be 
only  a  little  less  rapid  and  complete  than  if  the  surface  had  not  been 
disturbed  at  all.  The  same,  thing  will  happen  if  the  surface  layer 
be  only  coarsely  broken  to  a  still  greater  depth:  the  passage  of  air 
through  the  clods  will  be  free  enough  to  draw  off  the  moisture  and 
the  soil  will  dry  out  to  a  degree  which  will  bring  distress  to  plants 
which  good  cultivation  would  have  maintained  in  vigorous  growth. 
It  is  plain  then  that  the  earth  mulch  must  be  fine  enough  and  deep 
enough  to  serve  its  intended  purpose  and  for  this  no  arbitrary  rule 
can  be  laid  down  except  that  the  coarser  the  soil  by  nature  or  the 
coarser  the  particles  by  cultivation  the  deeper  the  mulch  must  be. 
The  practical  test  is  easy ;  if  the  pulverized  layer  become  dry  and 
if  on  brushing  it  aside  with  the  foot,  the  firm  surface  is  hard  and 
more  or  less  dry  also,  the  mulch  is  not  effective  and  its  character 
must  be  improved. 

Steps  by  Which  Conservation  is  Attained. — The  foundation  for 
a  satisfactory  moisture-conserving  tilth  is  laid  with  the  plow  during 
the  fall  or  winter  preceding  the  summer  during  which  it  is  to  be 
maintained.  Though  plowing  has  been  considered  as  a  factor  in 
opening  the  soil  to  receive  and  store  moisture  it  is  also  considered 
in  its  conservation.  To  do  this  the  plow  must  be  used  when  the  soil 
is  in  the  best  condition  not  only  for  turning  but  for  disintegrating 
by  the  crushing  action  of  the  mold  board  so  that  the  soil  particles 
shall  lie  closely  upon  the  firm  portion  and  not  form  large  air  spaces 
which  minister  to  drying  out.  Plowing  when  the  soil  is  unfit  results 
in  clods,  which  are  every  way  hateful  in  the  garden,  and  in  air" 
spaces,  which  are  objectionable,  as  shown.  Even  when  the  soil  is  in 
reasonably  good  condition,  late  plowing,  if  left  rough  and  open  to 
dry  winds,  will  form  clods  in  all  except  the  loosest  soils,  conse- 
quently all  late  plowing  should  be  at  once  well  harrowed. 

The  next  step  in  the  assurance  of  a  good  earth  mulch  is  the 
early  use  of  the  cultivator.  It  will  not  do  to  allow  the  harrowed 
soil  to  crust  by  rains  and  then  trust  to  some  later  rain  to  loosen  and 
rescue  the  young  plants  from  its  embrace.  Just  as  soon  as  the  soil 
arrives  in  condition  after  a  rain,  stir  the  surface  well  and  the  crust 
will  not  be  formed,  and  this  must  be  done  just  as  often  as  crust- 
forming  conditions  recur.  In  this  way  the  soil  surface  is  constantly 


CULTIVATION   IN   SMALL  GARDENS  83 

kept  in  good  absorbing  condition  and  is  also  carried  on  its  way  to 
the  best  conserving  condition  as  well.  Weed  growth,  which  is 
moisture  wasting,  is  also  prevented. 

Then  comes  the  summer  cultivation  to  retain  such  an  earth- 
mulch  as  has  been  described.  If  it  proceeds  upon  previous  good 
work  in  clod  and  crust  preventing  the  vegetable  grower  is  fortunate. 
If  not,  he  must  have  recourse  to  whatever  implements  for  clod 
crushing,  cutting,  chopping  and  grinding,  work  best  in  his  soil,  for, 
as  there  can  be  no  best  plow  for  all  soils,  so  also  there  can  be  no  best 
cultivator.  The  grower  must  learn  to  recognize  the  condition  which 
he  wishes  to  attain  and  then  experiment  with  tools  until  he  finds  the 
best  for  his  soil.  Summer  cultivation  means  cultivation  all  summer, 
or  at  least  as  long  as  growths  are  still  progressing.  To  reduce  to 
good  tilth  in  the  spring  and  then  "lay  by"  the  garden  or  else  to  count 
upon  later  cultivation  only  in  the  case  of  later  rains,  is  not  adequate 
cultivation  for  moisture  conservation.  The  earth  mulch  will  have 
its  capillarity  restored  by  its  own  absorption  of  moisture  from  below 
or  from  the  air,  and  it  will  lose  its  efficiency  as  a  protecting  cover 
even  though  no  rain  falls.  Therefore  frequent  stirring  to  the  ade- 
quate depth  but  without  soil-turning  must  be  maintained  at  intervals 
both  to  restore  the  mulch  and  to  destroy  weeds  which  may  start  late 
and  pump  moisture  away  from  the  plants  in  almost  incredible 
amount.  Remember,  though  no  crust  forms  and  no  weeds  start,  the 
cultivator  must  frequently  restore  the  surface  layer  to  its  condition 
as  an  efficient  mulch  if  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  moisture  is 
to  be  conserved. 

CULTIVATION  IN  SMALL  GARDENS. 

Work  with  spading-fork,  hoe  and  rake  in  the  hand-made 
garden  is  subject  to  exactly  the  same  requirements  as  those  de- 
scribed for  the  horse-power  garden  or  vegetable  field.  Early  and 
deep  digging  for  moisture  reception  and  storage,  as  well  as  to  wel- 
come root-penetration,  must  be  followed  by  coarse  raking  to  main- 
tain a  surface  fit  for  absorption  and  not  favorable  to  crusting  while 
the  rainy  season  advances,  and,  after  the  rains  have  ceased,  there 
must  be  frequent  deep  hoeing  and  fine  raking  to  maintain  the  earth- 
mulch  which  has  already  been  characterized. 

The  Man  with  the  Hoe. — The  use  of  the  hoe  at  different  sea- 
sons in  the  California  garden  and  the  contrast  between  summer 
hoeing  as  practiced  in  arid  and  humid  climates  is  so  strikingly 


84 


CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 


illustrative  of  the  sort  of  tillage  which  gives  in  California  rank 
summer  growth  without  rain,  that  a  few  comments  will  be  indulged 
in. 

The  first  and  most  obvious  reflection  which  comes  to  one  who 
does  summer  hoeing  in  an  arid  land  is  that  the  handling  of  the  hoe 
which  he  practiced  in  his  boyhood  in  eastern  garden  or  cornfield  is 
not  the  hoeing  which  avails  most  now  and  here.  The  light,  shallow 
stroke,  which  fell  just  below  the  root  crown  of  the  weed,  stirred  the 
immediate  surface  a  little  and  left  the  field  clean,  used  to  be  the 
touch  for  eastern  hoeing,  and  a  man  could  almost  do  it  at  walking 
speed  for  hours  upon  hours.  Except  a  little  extra  deep  work,  which 
was  called  for  when  the  occasional  short  droughts  threatened,  this 
shallow  weed-cutting  was  sufficient  to  give  the  crop  the  upper  hand 
in  the  struggle  with  weeds,  and  the  frequent  showers  kept  the  sur- 
face moist  enough  to  prevent  baking. 

It  is  to  be  inferred  from  recent  reports  that  there  is  less  shallow 
hoeing  done  now  than  a  generation  ago  at  the  east,  and  deeper  sum- 
mer cultivation  has  been  found  profitable  there.  However  this  may 
be,  it  is  clear  that  shallow  hoeing  is  a  delusion  and  a  snare  in  this 
country.  Practice  it  through  the  spring  and  as  long  as  the  weeds 
start,  and  your  garden  surface  will  be  dusty.  Think  then  con- 
tentedly about  what  you  have  heard  of  a  mulch  of  dust-retaining 
moisture.  Can  it  be  possible,  instead  of  shooting  upward,  the  plant 
just  holds  its  own  and  then  goes  backward,  wilting,  yellowing  its 
leaves,  and  all  but  dying  in  its  distress?  Surely  there  must  be  a 
worm  at  the  root.  The  hoe  is  seized  and  brought  down  upon  the 
soil  at  an  angle  and  with  a  force  it  has  not  known  all  summer.  How 
the  dust  flies  from  the  surface,  and  how  the  hoe  flies  from  the  hard- 
pan  just  beneath  the  dust  as  though  it  had  been  brought  down 
upon  a  marble  slab.  Then  there  come  to  mind  thoughts  on  hoeing 
which  never  came  before.  Then  it  becomes  plain  that  the  shaP 
low  weed-cutting  stroke  is  not  the  dash  of  the  hoe  which  saves  the 
plant. 

One  who  goes  through  this  experience  once  will  know  better 
how  to  hoe  next  time.  He  will  see  that  by  sharp,  deep  strokes, 
often  using  the  corners  of  the  blade,  he  will  maintain  a  loose  layer 
upon  the  surface  which  will  be  thick  enough  to  prevent  direct 
evaporation  from  a  hard-pan  layer  and  thus  to  break  the  connection 
between  capillary  action  and  the  atmosphere.  Such  hoeing  is  harder 
than  light  work  with  the  blade  nearly  horizontal.  It  takes  muscle 


CULTIVATION    AND    IRRIGATION 


85 


to  give  a  strong  vertical  stroke  which  penetrates  well,  and  one  can- 
not waltz  along  the  rows  whistling  a  lively  tune,  as  is  quite  possible 
while  weed-cutting  in  moist  soil  in  February. 

There  is  little  grace,  we  admit,  in  the  attitude  of  the  Italian 
market  gardener,  as  he  straddles  the  row,  arches  his  back  and 
grunts  as  he  sends  his  heavy  mattock  its  full  depth  into  the  soil 
around  the  plants.  The  American  with  his  fine,  new,  full-width, 
bronze-shanked,  green-labeled,  steel  hoe,  marching  along  the  rows, 
touching  the  soil  with  disdain  as  ill  worth  exertion  on  his  part,  is  a 
much  handsomer  picture.  But  the  Italian's  plants  laugh  at  drought. 
When  irrigated  the  soil  takes  water  like  a  sponge  and  it  goes  plump 
down  to  the  roots  of  the  plant.  Irrigate  the  shallow-hoed  plat ;  a 
pailful  will  run  a  rod  and  the  plant  root  gets  but  the  gurgle  of  the 
water  as  it  flows  along  the  surface  of  the  hard-pan  just  beneath  the 
dust. 

Evidently,  if  one  begins  early  in  the  season  with  deep  hoeing,  the 
midsummer  tussle  with  hard-pan  will  be  obviated.  This  is  really 
the  lesson  to  be  learned. 


CULTIVATION  AND  IRRIGATION. 

All  that  has  been  said  about  the  relations  of  tillage  to  reception 
and  conservation  of  moisture  from  rainfall  is  of  equal  truth  as 
related  to  moisture  derived  from  irrigation.  Soils  not  readily  ab- 
sorptive must  be  opened  by  proper  tillage  to  receive  the  waterflow. 
Such  is  the  service  rendered  by  the  furrow  system  in  addition  to  its 
furnishing  channels  for  the  flow.  Soils  naturally  open  will  take 
water  as  well,  and  sometimes  better,  by  other  methods,  as  has 
already  been  explained.  But  by  whatever  means  water  is  brought 
to  the  soil  the  conservation  of  the  water  depends  largely  upon  the 
prevention  of  surface  evaporation  which  not  only  releases  moisture 
but  turns  the  upper  soil  into  a  pavement  which  is  fatal  to  shallow- 
rooting  plants.  Therefore  let  the  plow  follow  the  irrigation,  if  it  is 
fall  or  winter  irrigation  for  the  preparation  of  a  seed  bed,  and  let 
the  cultivator  do  its  work  finely  and  to  sufficient  depth  if  it  is  sum- 
mer irrigation  for  advanced  plant  growth.  Do  not  let  the  irrigated 
land  lie  until  it  yields  clods  to  the  cultivator.  Seize  it  soon,  as  good 
tilth  waits  on  stirring ;  "and  when  'tis  done  then  'twere  well  it  were 
done  quickly." 


86  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

RIDGES,  HILLS,  RAISED  BEDS  AND  LEVEL  CULTURE. 

Though  the  considerations  suggested  by  these  words  are  in- 
volved in  irrigation  and  drainage,  they  are  commonly  regarded  as 
phases  of  cultivation.  It  is  almost  obvious  that  all  methods  of 
lifting  the  plant  bed  above  the  common  surface  are  equivalent  to 
providing  it  with  the  fullest  facilities  for  surface  drainage.  When- 
ever, then,  ridging  or  hilling  or  raising  whole  garden  beds  is  prac- 
ticed without  connection  with  irrigation  upon  the  elevated  surface, 
it  affords  exceptional  means  for  the  escape  of  surplus  water  and 
relief  to  the  plant  from  saturated  soil.  By  this  act  the  winter  growth 
of  vegetables,  hardy  enough  to  withstand  the  local  climate,  can  be 
carried  on  in  the  most  retentive  soil  under  a  very  heavy  rainfall. 

Ridging. — It  matters  not  whether  this  ridging  is  done  very 
quickly  with  the  plow  by  back  furrowing  or  whether  a  raised  bed 
is  made  in  the  small  garden  with  a  retaining  border,  the  principle 
is  the  same  and  it  is  a  very  useful  one.  It  affords  a  ready  answer 
to  the  requirement  which  exists  in  many  parts  of  California  for 
facilitating  winter  growth  by  drainage  without  at  the  same  time 
endangering  too  great  loss  of  water  for  summer  cropping.  The 
back  furrow  gives  the  plants  a  greater  depth  of  stirred  soil,  which  is 
especially  valuable  in  the  rainy  season.  After  the  early  crop  of 
hardy  vegetables  is  disposed  of  there  will  still  be  time  to  plow  down 
the  ridges  and  put  the  soil  in  receptive  shape  for  the  late  winter  or 
spring  rains,  cultivating  being  done  later  to  retain  moisture  until 
the  frost-free  period  arrives,  when  the  same  land  will  take  its  sum- 
mer crop  of  tender  vegetables  with  or  without  irrigation  as  the 
character  of  the  soil,  the  proposed  growth  and  the  local  rainfall 
shall  require. 

Raised  Beds. — A  more  elaborate  application  of  the  same  prin- 
ciples consists  in  the  raised  beds,  which  are  very  useful  for  winter 
growth  in  the  small  garden  and,  in  combination  with  irrigation  by 
seepage  as  already  described  in  the  chapter  on  that  subject,  afford 
a  means  for  applying  water  or  escaping  from  it  as  the  conditions  at 
any  time  shall  dictate. 

Another  form  is  the  permanent,  bordered,  raised  bed  of  the 
kitchen  garden,  which  is  very  serviceable  either  in  farm  or  village 
growth  of  home  supplies  by  hand  work,  both  in  cultivation  and 
sprinkling.  This  is  the  method  by  which  Mr.  Ira  W.  Adams,  of 
Potter  Valley,  one  of  our  most  resourceful  vegetable  growers,  ap- 
plies the  principle  on  a  small  scale : 


HILLS   AND   FLAT   CULTURE  87 

I  make  my  beds  four  feet  wide  and  any  length  desired.  As  my  land  is 
little  on  the  adobe  order  I  put  on  three  or  four  inches  of  fine  creek  sand 
and  a  very  heavy  dressing  of  thoroughly  decomposed  mixture  of  cow,  horse, 
pig,  and  hen  manure.  My  beds  are  twenty  feet  long  and  I  confine  the  soil 
in  them  by  laying  a  round  spruce  pole  on  each  side,  said  pole  being  about 
six  inches  in  diameter  at  one  end  and  five  at  the  other;  a  little  larger  or 
smaller  will  answer.  By  driving  a  small  stake  at  each  end  of  these  poles 
and  one  in  the  middle,  and  fastening  them  to  the  pole  by  a  single  nail  in 
each  stake,  a  great  saving  of  space  is  made  on  the  edges  of  the  beds,  as 
without  some  protection  the  heavy  rains  wash  the  edges  of  the  beds  very 
badly. 

A  few. days  before  sowing  the  seed,  in  September,  I  water  the  bed  very 
thoroughly  until  the  soil  is  thoroughly  saturated  to  the  depth  of  eight  or  ten 
inches.  Leave  it  until  it  is  in  just  the  right  condition  to  work.  Then  incor- 
porate the  sand  and  manure  into  the  bed  in  the  best  possible  manner  by 
vigorous  use  of  a  six-tined  hoe  fork  with  round  steel  teeth  about  one-fourth 
of  an  inch  in  diameter  and  eight  inches  long.  This  thorough  work,  with 
the  addition  of  the  sand  and  manure,  leaves  my  beds  about  eight  inches 
above  the  general  level  of  the  land,  and  between  each  bed  I  leave  a  walk 
fourteen  inches  wide. 

Some  may  say  it  is  a  great  deal  of  trouble  to  prepare  such  beds. 
Granted ;  but  when  the  beds  are  once  carefully  made  they  are  fit  for  imme- 
diate use  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  and  for  many  years  to  come,  not  only 
for  onions,  but  for  early  lettuce,  radishes,  turnips,  table  beets,  dwarf  peas, 
etc.,  that  require  a  light,  rich,  and  well-drained  soil.  An  application  of  a 
little  liquid  hen  manure  occasionally  is  very  beneficial,  and  is  all  the  fertiliz- 
ing the  beds  will  need  for  many  years. 

This  shows  small-scale,  intensive  work.  With  such  beds  it  is 
possible  to  have  vegetables  in  edible  condition,  before  it  would  be 
wise  to  sow  seeds  of  the  same  kinds  in  open  ground  in  the  same 
locality. 

Hilling. — Hilling  of  plants  to  afford  soil-room  for  growth 
started  from  shallow  planting  is  another  means  of  attaining  drain- 
age and  soil  warmth  during  the  winter  season.  It  is  the  ridge  prin- 
ciple applied  in  spots  and  with  vastly  greater  labor.  If  one  has  a 
fancy  for  it  he  can  indulge  in  it  in  a  hand-made  winter  garden,  but 
otherwise  there  is  nothing  to  be  said  for  it. 

Flat  Culture. — All  references  to  systems  which  lift  the  plant- 
bed  above  the  common  surface  should  be  accompanied  by  the  clear 
declaration,  that  except  as  associated  with  the  distribution  of  irriga- 
tion water,  they  are  a  delusion  and  a  snare  if  carried  into  summer 
work.  The  very  release  of  water  which  fits  them  for  winter  use 
unfits  them  for  the  dry  summer.  Level  culture  is  the  broad  basis 
upon  which  summer  conservation  of  moisture  rests.  The  plant  root 


88  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

should  neither  be  lifted  into  the  air  nor  should  the  soil  be  opened 
so  that  the  air  is  allowed  to  freely  descend  to  the  plant  roots.  Soil 
and  air  assume  proper  relations  when  the  culture  is  flat  and  fine 
and  sufficiently  deep. 

Tillage  to  Release  Excessive  Moisture. — The  occasion  for  this 
course,  except  in  stated  winter  practice  already  described,  rarely 
occurs  in  California  except  on  lowlands  in  regions  of  ample  rainfall, 
though  sometimes  a  large  precipitation  in  a  short  time  may  too 
long  delay  planting  until  the  surplus  is  disposed  of.  Plowing  with 
rather  a  long  slope  of  moldboard,  which  turns  furrows  without 
crushing  and  laps  them  well,  leaves  air  spaces  at  the  bottom  of  the 
furrow-slice  and  aids  greatly  in  drying  the  soil.  Sub-soiling  also 
allows  water  to  percolate  and  air  to  enter  freely.  These  are,  how- 
ever, heroic  treatments  and  if  employed  late  in  the  rainy  season  are 
apt  to  give  the  lower  layers  of  the  soil  opportunity  to  dry  beyond 
desirable  moisture  retention.  If  only  a  slight  surface  drying  is 
necessary  .a  narrow-toothed  harrow  or  cutting  discs  with  slight 
lateral  pressure  will  accomplish  it. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 
FERTILIZATION. 

In  the  chapter  on  soils  there  has  been  given  a  glance  at  the 
leading  characteristics  of  California  soils,  including  their  endow- 
ment of  available  plant  food.  This  natural  fertility  is  the  explana- 
tion of  the  fact  that  in  this  state  up  to  this  time  the  question  of  fer- 
tilization has  been  of  minor  importance.  The  securing  and  husband- 
ing of  adequate  moisture  constitute  the  key  by  which  native  fertility 
is  unlocked  and  so  long  as  this  resource  permits  the  gathering  of 
large  crops  of  superior  vegetable  products  without  expenditure  for 
fertilizers  it  is  obvious  that  we  shall  have  the  art  of  fertilizing  under 
our  climatic  conditions  still  to  learn.  We  have,  however,  already 
entered  upon  large  expenditure  for  fertilizers  for  fruit  trees,  es- 
pecially those  of  the  citrus  family,  and  the  world-wide  problem  of 
economical  plant-feeding  will  reach  all  our  producers,  sooner  or 
later,  as  each  has  the  hungrier  plants  or  the  thinner  soils.  The  old 
misconception  of  the  pioneers  that  California  climate  and  soil  had 
some  sort  of  beneficent  inter-relation  and  inter-action  which  in- 
sured perpetual  fertility  was  merely  a  phase  of  the  perpetual  motion 
vagary,  as  applied  to  agriculture.  It  was  a  sort  of  reaction  from  the 
older  view  that  California  'soil  would  produce  nothing  but  winter 
pasture.  Of  course  all  these  early  notions  have  passed  away.  It  is 
only  a  question  of  time  when  soil-building  will  be  a  regular  Cali- 
fornia effort  but  on  some  lands,  and  for  some  crops,  it  may  be  a 
very  long  time  before  the  problem  will  be  pressing. 

And  yet  it  would  not  be  truthful  to  convey  the  impression  that 
fertilization  is  not  undertaken  at  the  present  time.  The  traffic  in 
commercial  fertilizers  is  rapidly  increasing  and  reports  made  under 
the  California  Fertilizer  law  indicate  sales  of  over  50,000  tons  dur- 
ing the  year  ending  June  30,  1912.  There  has  been  great  progress 
during  recent  years  in  the  utilization  of  natural  manurial  supplies 
which  were  formerly  allowed  to  go  to  waste.  The  demand  from 
orchardists  has  induced  systematic  search  and  traffic,  and  old  accu- 

(89) 


90  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

mulations  from  the  stock  farming  of  our  first  thirty  or  forty  years 
are  being  put  to  good  use,  together  with  a  considerable  amount  of 
artificial  fertilizers.  There  is  also  a  constant  demand  for  the  wastes 
of  our  towns  and  cities  for  gardening  purposes.  Our  market  gar- 
deners have  zeal  for  collecting  the  cleanings  of  city  stables  and  our 
amateur  gardeners,  both  in  villages  and  on  farms,  make,  as  a  rule, 
good  use  of  the  animal  wastes  which  are  available.  They  understand 
the  advantage  of  intensive  work  and  of  bringing  small  areas  up  to 
maximum  production,  and  they  know  that  to  raise  large  garden 
crops  one  must  apply  manure  without  stint,  but  our  field  produc- 
tion of  staple  vegetables  is  not  intensive  as  yet,  except  as  intensity 
is  included  in  natural  fertility.  This  being  the  case,  the  writer  does 
not  undertake  prophecy.  In  a  few  years  the  progressive  work  which 
is  now  under  way,  especially  in  Southern  California,  in  trial  of  arti- 
ficial manures  for  vegetable  growing,  will  furnish  object  lessons  for 
general  guidance.  Present  purposes  will  be  best  served  by  offering 
suggestions  as  to  the  ways  to  turn  natural  supplies  to  best  account. 

Comparative  Value  of  Animal  Manures. — The  excrements  of 
different  animals  serve  somewhat  different  purposes  in  garden 
practice  because  they  act  more  or  less  quickly  and  are  more  or  less 
stimulating  to  the  plant.  There  is  also  warrant  in  carrying  with 
the  word  stimluating  the  inference  that  in  feeding  plants,  as  in 
treating  animals,  that  which  is  most  stimulating  must  be  used  with 
the  greatest  caution.  Both  caution  and  economy  prescribe  that  the 
manure  which  has  the  highest  content  of  plant  food  should  be  used 
in  less  amount  and  more  carefully  distributed  through  the  area  of 
soil  which  the  roots  of  the  plant  are  expected  to  traverse. 

The  excrements  of  animals  depend  in  composition  upon  the 
abundance  and  richness  of  the  food  furnished  them.  The  follow- 
ing table  is  compiled  from  experiments  and  analyses  made  at  Cornell 
University,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  stock  was  well  fed. 

COMPOSITION    AND    VALUE    OF    FRESH    MANURE    FROM    DIFFERENT 

ANIMALS. 

Nitrogen,  Potash,  Phosphoric  Acid,          Value  per 

Animals.  Percent.  Percent.  Percent.  Ton. 

Cows  0.50  0.29  0.45  2.37 

Horses  0.47  0.94  0.39  2.79 

Sheep  1.00  1.21  0.08  4.19 

Swine  0.83  0.61  0.04  3.18 

Hens  1.10  0.29  0.47  4.22 


COMPOSITION   OF   MANURES  91 

The  value  is  figured  at  the  price  agreed  upon  by  eastern  chem- 
ists as  fair  value  for  the  ingredients  as  used  in  artificial  fertilizers. 

Value  per  ton  is  also  conditioned  upon  the  percentage  of  water 
in  the  manure.  Hen  manure  has  much  less  water  even  in  a  fresh 
state  than  that  of  cattle,  and  air-dried  hen  manure,  free  from  earth, 
etc.,  is  sometimes  worth  as  much  as  $10  per  ton,  providing  the  hens 
are  well  fed.  In  this  state  air-dried  sheep  manure  in  large  corral 
deposits  in  Fresno  county  has  been  found  by  analyses  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  California  to  have  this  composition  and  value: 

Per  cent. 

Nitrogen    2.32 

Potash    2.90 

Phosphoric  Acid   2.88 

The  material  had  only  twenty-eight  per  cent  of  water  and  its 
value  calculated  at  the  agreed  price  of  its  ingredients  is  $10.95  per 
ton.  Even  when  calculated  at  the  same  per  cent  of  water,  the  Cali- 
fornia corral  deposit  has  much  higher  value  than  the  eastern  sheep 
manure,  because  it  has  suffered  less  from  leaching. 

Garden  Use  of  Concentrated  Manures. — Hen,  sheep  and  hog 
manure  are  very  much  richer,  as  shown,  than  the  same  bulk  of  cow 
or  horse  manure.  The  safest  way  to  use  them  is  by  composting 
with  other  materials,  as  will  be  described  presently,  but  if  it  is  de- 
sirable to  use  them  alone,  care  should  be  taken  in  the  distribution, 
as  already  stated.  This  can  be  assured  by  thoroughly  mixing  these 
manures  with  at  least  equal  bulks  of  fine  earth,  when  they  will  soon 
be  reduced  into  a  fairly  dry  and  powdery  state  in  which  they  may 
be  readily  spread  broadcast  on  the  land,  or  be  sown  by  the  drill,  and 
be  found  a  useful  general  manure  for  every  kind  of  garden  produce, 
if  it  is  evenly  scattered  and  not  allowed  to  collect  around  the  roots 
of  single  plants.  A  mixture  which  is  good  for  all  garden  purposes 
can  be  made  with  1,000  Ibs.  of  chicken  manure,  150  Ibs.  nitrate  of 
soda,  600  Ibs.  fine  bone  meal,  and  250  Ibs.  muriate  of  potash.  Poul- 
try manure  should  not  be  mixed  with  wood  ashes. 

Deterioration  of  Manures. — There  are  two  ways  by  which 
animal  manures  lose  valuable  constituents :  first,  the  escape  of  nitro- 
gen by  fermentation  which  sets  free  this  element  chiefly  in  the  form 
of  ammonia;  second,  the  leaching  out  of  soluble  matters  by  ex- 
posure of  the  mass  to  copious  rains.  Both  of  these  losses^  are  prac- 
tically prevented  by  drying  of  the  manure.  The  local  demonstration 


92 


CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 


of  this  general  truth  is  seen  in  the  analysis  just  given  of  sheep 
manure  which  has  passed  through  many  years  of  exposure  to  the 
weather  in  an  arid  interior  valley  of  California  and  still  retains  so 
much  fertilizing  value.  Another  means  by  which  fermentation  is 
reduced  and  controlled  is  by  compacting  the  mass  so  that  free  access 
of  air  and  free  passage  of  water  are  prevented.  This  compacting 
is  currently  accomplished  by  the  tread  of  the  sheep  confined  by 
night  in  large  numbers  in  small  inclosure.  The  prevention  of  leach- 
ing in  this  case  is  also  due  to  the  fact  that  the  local  rainfall  never 
reaches  in  any  short  period  volume  enough  to  accomplish  percolation 
through  a  thick  layer  of  manure  to  the  soil.  We  have  then  in  the 
case  of  a  dry  interior  valley  of  California  all  the  conditions  for  the 
preservation  of  manure  which  the  progressive  farmers  of  humid 
climates  secure  by  means  of  covered  cattle  yards,  covered  pits, 
manure  sheds  and  other  devices. 

And  yet  manure  will  go  to  destruction  in  California  as  fast  as 
elsewhere  unless  the  conditions  mentioned  are  secured.  Loose  piles 
of  manure,  except  in  the  most  arid  localities,  have,  or  subsequently 
receive,  moisture  enough  to  start  active  fermentation  and  will  "fire- 
fang"  and  become  nearly  worthless  in  a  very  short  time  during  our 
hot  summer.  Such  loose  piles  thrown  to  the  weather  in  the  rainy 
season  will  be  largely  leached  of  their  soluble  matters  wherever 
rainfall  is  considerable.  Probably  the  easiest  way  to  preserve 
manure  in  California  is  to  allow  it  to  lie  in  the  corral  during  the 
summer,  for  there  it  is  free  from  leaching  rain,  usually  from  June 
to  November,  and  all  its  coarse  straw,  etc.,  dry  and  brittle,  is  reduced 
almost  to  powder  by  the  tramp  of  the  animals.  If  then  this  fine 
material  is  scraped  up,  spread  and  plowed  in  at  the  beginning  of 
the  rainy  season  it  will  readily  ferment  in  the  soil  and  all  its  value 
be  retained,  if  the  application  is  made  to  a  heavy  soil  under  a  good 
rainfall.  The  winter-made  manure  should  not  be  allowed  to  lie  in 
the  corral  to  be  leached  by  drenching  rain.  It  should  be  gathered 
frequently  and  applied  fresh  to  the  land  so  that  the  leachings  may 

Co  to  useful  purposes  in  the  soil  and  the  coarse  material  should 
e  plowed  in  while  there  is  still  moisture  enough  in  the  soil  to  make 
the  process  safe  and  efficacious. 

This  easiest  way  to  handle  animal  manures  in  California  may 
do  for  ordinary  farm  crops,  if  the  soil  is  heavy  enough  and  moist 
enough  to  receive  unfermented  manure  without  danger  to  the  crop 
from  loss  of  moisture,  but  it  is  not  the  best  way  to  handle  manure, 


GARDEN   COMPOST  93 

either  for  field  crops  or  for  gardens.  Manure  for  garden  use  should 
be  most  carefully  treated  to  save  all  its  richness  and  to  render  its 
coarse  materials  more  readily  available  in  soil-forming  processes. 
In  short,  instead  of  preventing  fermentation,  manure  for  garden 
purposes  should  be  put  through  a  carefully  controlled  fermentation 
which  is  involved  in  composting. 

Compost  for  Garden  Purposes. — The  term  compost  signifies 
a  mixture  of  manurial  substances  and  for  garden  use  there  should 
be  collection  constantly  made  of  the  voiding  of  the  animals,  trim- 
mings of  vegetables,  the  refuse  of  plants  as  the  ground  is  cleared, 
the  house  wastes,  and  in  fact  everything  of  an  organic  nature  which 
will  yield  to  decay,  and  any  available  mineral  wastes,  like  ashes, 
which  contains  plant  food.  If  all  these  are  added  to  the  animal 
manure  and  treatment  adopted  which  will  promote  the  proper  fer- 
mentation in  it,  the  manure  will  assist  in  reducing  the  other  ma- 
terials to  proper  condition  for  garden  use. 

The  conditions  for  such  fermentation  are  adequate  moisture 
accompanied  with  stirring  and  aeration  enough  to  distribute  the 
action  evenly  throughout  the  mass  and  to  bring  all  the  materials 
under  its  influence.  There  are  numerous  ways  of  accomplishing 
this,  and  each  operator  will  probably  have  his  own  notions  about 
their  relative  ease  and  cheapness. 

Manure  Tanks. — These  are  cemented,  water-tight,  excavations 
of  various  sizes.  A  Napa  county  farmer  built  one  a  few  years  ago 
which  cost  him  nearly  two  hundred  dollars,  with  all  its  appur- 
tenances. It  is  thirteen  by  twenty  and  one-half  feet  in  size,  about 
six  feet  deep  and  exceedingly  well  built,  having  cement  walls  and 
floor,  so  as  to  be  water-tight.  The  floor  has  a  slant,  inclining  to  a 
well  at  one  end,  where,  with  the  aid  of  a  wooden  pump,  the  juices 
as  they  settle  are  raised  to  the  top  and  poured  over  the  mass  to  again 
percolate  through  it.  Such  a  cistern  might,  perhaps,  be  made  for 
less  money  now,  but  it  is  quite  a  question  whether  it  is  worth  while 
making  any  such  investment.  Loss  of  liquid  manure  by  leaching 
is  prevented,  but  on  the  other  hand  it  is  apt  to  accumulate  in  such 
quantities  in  the  pit  that,  unless  the  pit  is  roofed,  the  addition  of  the 
rainfall  will  result  in  the  submergence  of  all  the  manure  and  this 
excludes  the  air  and  prevents  the  proper  fermentation.  The  result 
is  that  there  is  great  cost  in  excavating  the  water-logged  material 
from  the  tank,  a  large  amount  of  heavy  and  disagreeable  shoveling 
and  the  manure  not  in  the  best  condition  after  all. 


94  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

Manure  Pits. — Manure  pits  if  excavated  with  one  sloping  side 
so  carts  can  be  readily  backed  in  for  filling,  are  cheaper  than  tanks 
and  if  they  have  a  clay  subsoil  for  a  floor  or  can  be  puddled  with  clay 
on  the  concave  bottom  they  will  hold  most  of  the  liquid  unless  water 
flushing  of  the  stable  is  indulged  in.  A  large  grower  of  beets  and 
other  roots  for  stock  feeding  in  San  Mateo  county  has  for  a  num- 
ber of  years  used  this  arrangement  with  satisfaction : 

I  have  a  manure  pit  large  enough  to  hold  all  the  manure  made  in  a 
year.  A  hole  about  three  feet  deep  is  dug  out  of  the  side  of  a  hill.  A 
sloping  platform,  up  which  all  the  manure  is  wheeled,  raises  it  about 
four  feet  above  the  ground  on  the  upper  side,  which  gives  a  drop  for 
the  manure  of  about  seven  feet.  When  filled  up  to  a.  level  with  the  end 
of  the  platform,  loose  planks  are  laid  as  required  on  top  of  the  manure. 
Thus  by  continually  wheeling  each  day's  manure  over  the  older  manure, 
its  solidity  is  insured,  and  all  the  manure  made  on  the  farm  has  to  go 
up  the  said  platform.  After  the  cow  stable  is  cleaned  out,  the  lightest 
of  the  manure  from  the  horse  stable,  bull  stalls,  etc.,  or  any  other  ab- 
sorbent, is  put  behind  the  cows,  taking  up  fluids,  and  thus  insuring  a 
regular  quality  throughout  the  heap.  Another  important  item  added  to 
the  general  heap  is  the  hen  manure  and  ashes,  the  latter  being  kept  in  a 
large  tin,  which,  when  full,  is  emptied  into  the  fowl-house,  and  all  goes 
in  the  manure  heap  together. 

This  use  of  absorbents  prevents  accumulation  of  excessive  liquid 
and  there  is  consequently  little  loss  by  leaching.  The  compacting 
of  the  mass  prevents  too  free  access  of  the  air  and  fit  conditions  for 
slowly  breaking  down  the  coarse  manure  are  assured. 

Composting  in  Piles. — The  method  usually  followed  by  mar- 
ket gardeners  seems  on  the  whole  the  most  convenient  and  best 
for  this  climate,  where  the  winter  rainfall  is,  as  a  rule,  not  so 
heavy  as  to  occasion  much  leaching,  if  the  pile  is  of  several  feet  in 
depth.  It  involves  some  shoveling,  but  it  facilitates  rapid  curing 
of  the  manure  and  brings  it  into  excellent  condition  for  garden  use. 
Stack  the  fresh  manure  in  a  pile  several  feet  high.  Then  give  it 
a  thorough  wetting  from  a  hose  and  allow  it  to  decompose  for  a 
few  weeks.  Then  chop  it  down  with  sharp  spades,  mix  thoroughly 
and  stack  it  again;  then  wet  it  well  once  more,  and  after  a  few 
weeks  it  will  be  ready  to  put  upon  the  field.  This  process  of  com- 
posting destroys  all  weed  and  other  seeds,  prevents  the  manure 
from  burning,  as  well  as  the  escape  of  volatile  parts,  especially 
when  a  loam  or  sand  is  intermixed  when  stacking  it.  Compost  thus 
made  is  suitable  for  the  finest  garden,  at  a  moderate  expense,  and 
the  work  necessary  will  pay  a  larger  profit  than  any  other  farm 


MANURE   PITS  AND  TANKS  95 

labor.  Watching  the  moisture  and  using  the  hose,  when  the  rain- 
fall is  not  adequate,  and  thorough  stirring  and  aeration  of  the  mass, 
are  the  essentials  of  the  process. 

The  manner  in  which  Mr.  Ira  W.  Adams,  formerly  of  Calis- 
toga,  handles  his  manures  involves  correct  practice : 

Clean  up  all  the  manure  on  hand  just  before  the  fall  rains,  putting  the 
same  on  the  land,  and  either  cultivate  it  in  or  plow  it  under.  What  manure 
accumulates  during  the  winter,  pile  in  a  snug  heap  some  five  or  six  feet  in 
depth,  and  throw  it  over  some  three  or  four  times  during  the  winter  to  keep 
it  from  burning,  as  well  as  to  thoroughly  mix  it  and  thereby  hasten  decom- 
position. Put  horse,  cow,  hog,  chicken,  and  every  other  kind  of  manure 
that  can  be  had,  all  together. 

Never  burn  anything  that  will  rot,  but  haul  to  the  pile  cornstalks,  roots, 
and  all  squash,  melon,  tomato,  and  potato  vines,  etc.,  as  well  as  weeds  of 
every  description,  in  fact  anything  and  everything  that  will  decay  and  make 
vegetable  matter.  Use  fresh  horse  manure  mostly  to  hasten  the  decompo- 
sition of  said  vines,  weeds,  etc.,  alternating  as  the  heap  is  made.  By  so 
doing  there  will  not  be  a  weed  seed  left  with  vitality  enough  to  germinate. 

It  is  well  to  have  manure  piles  under  a  roof  to  avoid  leaching  during 
the  longest  and  most  excessive  rains,  but  so  situated  that  the  rain  falling  on 
the  barn  can  be  easily  conducted  to  the  piles,  giving  them  just  the  amount 
of  water  necessary  and  no  more.  After  the  rains  are  over,  some  water  will 
have  to  be  applied  from  time  to  time ;  and  covering  with  very  fine,  dry  earth 
will  keep  the  pile  from  drying  out  during  the  long,  hot  summer,  as  well  as 
cause  it  to  retain  most  of  the  ammonia,  etc.,  that  would  otherwise  have 
evaporated  and  escaped.  Late  in  the  fall  it  will  be  found  entirely  rotten, 
cutting  like  old  cheese. 

Liquid  Manure. — Liquid  extract  of  animal  manures  is  of  great 
efficacy  in  vegetable  growing  if  carefully  used.  It  is  made  by  filling 
a  barrel  with  manure,  pouring  water  on  above  and  drawing  it  out 
below  as  it  leaches  through  the  mass.  Another  way  is  to  have  a 
barrel  filled  with  water  in  a  handy  place  and  throw  into  it  enough 
manure  to  make  an  extract  of  the  right  strength.  No  matter  how 
it. is  done  care  must  be  taken  not  to  have  the  extract  too  strong. 
This  can  generally  be  told  by  the  color,  which  should  not  be  darker 
than  tea  of  medium  strength.  The  quantity  to  apply  in  the  hot-bed 
or  the  open  ground  must  be  learned  by  experience.  Enough  to 
produce  generous  and  still  vigorous  growth  is  the  rule.  With,  plants 
to  bear  fruit  like  tomatoes  much  less  stimulant  can  be  used  than 
with  plants  for  foliage,  for  the  stimulant  always  acts  away  from 
fruiting  and  toward  leaf  and  stem  extension. 

Absorbents. — As  has  already  been  intimated,  the  free  use  of 
absorbents  is  very  desirable  both  for  valuable  liquids,  likely  to 


96  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

leach  away,  and  for  gases  which  are  prone  to  fly  off.  Probably 
the  best  absorbent  for  both  purposes  is  ground  gypsum,  which  is 
now  very  cheaply  furnished  from  local  sources  in  several  parts 
of  the  state.  It  adds  value  of  its  own  in  addition  to  its  absorbent 
properties.  A  very  abundant  material  in  an  arid  country  is  road 
dust.  It,  too,  will  take  up  both  liquids  and  gases.  In  village  gardens 
with  paved  streets  and  well-watered  soil,  sifted  coal  ashes  act  well 
in  the  hen-house  and  on  the  manure  pile,  and  the  cinders  which  are 
sifted  out  are  a  good  foundation  for  permanent  garden  walks.  The 
free  use  of  the  fine  coal  ashes  has  for  years  kept  the  writer's  fowls 
without  a  case  of  swell-head,  has  rid  the  hen-house  of  all  odor,  and 
has  furnished  many  wagon  loads  of  home-made  fertilizer  which  is 
perfectly  safe  to  use  freely  as  the  hen  manure  is  diffused  through 
quite  a  bulk  of  material.  The  effect  of  large  use  of  these  sifted  coal 
ashes  on  an  adobe  garden  has  well-nigh  taken  the  hatefulness  out 
of  it  and  made  it  into  a  loam  delightful  to  put  tools  into. 

Manure  as  a  Mulch. — Market  gardeners  operating  with  heavy 
soils  use  immense  quantities  of  barn-yard  manure  both  composted 
with  garden  wastes  and  as  fresh  manure.  The  latter  is  largely 
used  as  a  mulch  or  top  dressing  during  the  rainy  season  to  prevent 
heavy  rain  from  compacting  the  soil  around  the  young  plants  and 
to  get  the  richness  of  the  manure  by  leaching.  They  use  it  in  sum- 
mer also  to  prevent  surface  evaporation  and  to  prevent  compacting 
the  surface  when  the  water  is  hand-thrown  with  scoop  or  pan  from 
the  ditches  between  the  raised  beds.  This  is  to  help  small  plants 
with  their  rooting;  afterwards  they  take  water  by  percolation  from 
the  ditch.  The  free  surface  use  of  fresh  coarse  manure,  to  be  after- 
wards forked  in,  is  safe  on  heavy  clay,  which  the  gardener  is  en- 
deavoring to  lighten  up,  but  if  coarse  manure  is  used  as  a  mulch 
on  light  sandy  soil,  it  should  be  raked  up  and  taken  to  the  compost 
heap,  as  only  thoroughly  decomposed  manure  should  be  worked  into 
such  soil. 

Wood  Ashes. — Coal  ashes  have  no  estimable  manurial  value; 
their  effect  is  mechanical  just  as  is  the  effect  of  adding  sand  to 
clay,  but  wood  ashes  as  well  as  plant  ashes  of  all  kinds,  is  in- 
trinsically an  excellent  fertilizer,  since  it  contains  the  soil  ingredi- 
ents required  by  all  plants,,  even  though  in  different  proportions. 
The  value  of  ash  varies  materially  in  accordance  with  the  degree 
of  heat  to  which  it  has  been  subjected  when  made.  In  general 
the  hotter  the  fire,  the  less  active  will  be  the  ash  as  a  fertilizer. 


VALUE    OF    MANURES  97 

The  Question  of  the  Money  Value  of  Wood  Ashes. — The  chem- 
ical composition  of  ashes  varies  considerably,  according  to  the 
plants,  or  parts  of  plants,  from  which  it  has  been  derived;  the 
smaller  the  wood,  or  the  more  of  weeds  or  other  herbaceous  ma- 
terial there  was  in  it,  the  more  valuable  the  ash ;  but  taking  a  broad 
average,  a  bushel  (say  forty-eight  pounds)  of  wood  ashes  would, 
according  to  the  ordinary  valuation  of  the  ingredients,  be  worth 
about  twenty-five  cents — counting  on  an  average  of  five  per  cent 
of  potash  and  two  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid.  Potash  is  generally 
in  good  supply  in  our  soils  as  yet,  unless  the  land  has  been  heavily 
cropped  with  root  crops,  so  the  chief  value  would  be  in  the  phos- 
phoric acid,  which  we  need  badly,  and  the  ash  for  that  substance 
would  be  worth  about  six  cents  per  bushel ;  ten  cents  may  be  taken 
as  the  minimum  aggregate  value  per  bushel  for  this  state  unless,  as 
stated,  the  planter  needs  the  potash.  In  general,  ashes  should  be 
spread  broadcast  over  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  allowed  to  be 
washed  in  by  rains  or  irrigation,  and  not  placed  too  near  the  plant. 
If  plowed  in  shallow  with  stubble  or  weeds,  the  latter  decompose 
very  quickly,  and  the  effect  of  both  is  thus  improved  and  quickened. 
The  greatest  benefit  may  be  expected  upon  sandy  and  porous  soils. 
On  these  "light  soils"  crops  of  every  kind,  but  especially  root  crops 
and  corn,  will  be  benefited  by  a  dressing  of  wood  ashes.  Thirty 
to  fifty  bushels  to  the  acre  of  fresh  ashes  will  be  a  full  dressing, 
and  three  or  four  times  that  amount  of  leached  ashes  may  be  ap- 
plied with  permanent  benefit. 

Bone  Manures. — To  make  bones  readily  available  they  may  be 
treated  with  sulphuric  acid  and  rendered  into  superphosphate,  which 
is  soluble.  But  sulphuric  acid  is  a  very  dangerous  agent  to  handle, 
and  can  hardly  be  commended  for  farm  or  garden  use.  Burning 
bones  destroys  their  nitrogen  and  renders  the  phosphate  even 
more  insoluble.  The  best  home  treatment  for  bones  is  to  crush 
them  if  it  can  be  handily  done,  and  then  put  them  through  the  fer- 
mentation of  the  compost  heap.  The  bones  which  do  not  break 
down  under  this  treatment  can  best  be  buried  deeply  in  the  orchard 
to  await  the  slow  disintegration  by  the  tree  roots. 

Commercial  Fertilisers. — A  discussion  of  the  value  and  avail- 
ability of  commercial  fertilizers  is  beyond  the  reach  of  this  treatise. 
The  vegetable  grower  should  possess  himself  of  a  good  recent 
book  on  the  subject.  In  connection  with  the  different  vegetables 
there  will  be  mention  of  applications  which  have  been  serviceable. 


98  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

At  this  point  reference  to  the  use  of  nitrates  as  an  all-around  pro- 
motive  agency  of  vegetable  growth  seems  warranted.  The  nitrate 
of  soda  is  the  old  reliance  of  gardeners;  the  nitrate  of  lime  is  a 
new  aspirant  for  their  favor.  One  particular  point  which  favors 
nitrates  in  addition  to  their  immediate  solubility  and  effect,  is  that 
the  plant  is  pushed  early  in  its  growth  when  perhaps  temperatures 
are  too  low  for  full  action  of  other  supplies  of  nitrogen,  which  the 
soil  may  contain.  Careful  application  should  be  made,  after  the  seed 
has  germinated,  during  the  early  stages  of  growth  of  the  plant  which 
it  is  desired  to  stimulate.  An  excessive  application  may  kill  the 
plants  and  even  distribution  is  essential,  either  over  the  whole 
surface  or  along  the  row,  at  the  rate  of  200  to  500  pounds  per  acre, 
according  to  the  ability  of  the  plant  to  use  it  to  the  grower's  ad- 
vantage. The  nitrate  is  distributed  to  the  roots  by  the  use  of  very 
little  water ;  too  heavy  rainfall  or  irrigation  may  carry  it  away  from 
them.  Application  must  be  made  intelligently  and  sparingly  at  first 
until  the  grower  finds  how  much  he  can  use  to  secure  best  results 
with  the  particular  plant  he  desires  to  push  along. 


CHAPTER    IX. 
GARDEN   LOCATION  AND  ARRANGEMENT. 

Several  things  should  be  considered  in  locating  the  farm  gar- 
den, for  much  depends  upon  selecting:  first,  the  best  soil  for  the 
purpose  the  farm  affords;  second,  situation  with  relation  to  pro- 
tection, warmth  and  drainage;  third,  nearness  to  water  supply  for 
irrigation;  fourth,  nearness  to  the  home  and  protection  from  intru- 
sion. It  may  not  be  possible  to  combine  all  these  points  in  a  single 
situation,  and  then  it  may  be  advisable  to  make  two  locations,  or, 
in  making  one,  to  sacrifice  convenience  to  the  more  imperative  con- 
ditions of  exposure,  soil  and  moisture. 

Choice  of  Soil. — General  considerations  in  connection  with 
soils  have  already  been  given.  Of  course,  for  ease  of  work  as  well 
as  for  other  considerations  a  rich  loam  should  be  chosen — the 
best  that  the  ranch  affords.  As  to  grades  of  loam,  the  lighter 
should  be  chosen  for  the  winter  garden  because  of  the  better  nat- 
ural drainage  and  warmth  and  the  short  time  in  which  such  soils 
will  take  tools  and  seeds  well  after  heavy  rains.  The  heavier  and 
more  retentive  soil  will  better  suit  the  summer  garden.  Sometimes 
these  two  soils  may  be  found  beside  each  other  in  the  same  acre ; 
sometimes  the  soil  can  be  readily  improved  in  these  lines,  as  has 
already  been  explained,  or  small  pieces  at  a  distance  from  each 
other  may  be  chosen  if  each  has  distinctive  fitness. 

Situation  and  Exposure. — Situation  schould  be  considered  for 
warmth  and  protection  as  well  as  drainage,  which  has  been  men- 
tioned. Though  garden  ground  in  general  is  most  conveniently 
worked  if  it  has  just  enough  grade  for  the  slow  distribution  of 
water,  for  winter  and  early  spring  growth  an  elevation  out  of  the 
frosts  of  the  low  grounds  and  into  the  superior  heat  of  the  southerly 
slopes  will  be  found  of  advantage.  In  addition  to  the  ridge  above, 
such  protection  from  north  and  northwest  winds  as  a  windbreak 
of  trees  or  farm  buildings  or  a  high  fence  will  be  valuable.  There 
is  great  difference  in  the  safety  and  speed  of  winter  vegetables  on 

(99) 


100  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES 

benches  and  hillsides,  as  compared  with  the  lower  lands  at  their 
feet  only  a  few  rods  away  perhaps.  Warm  protected  slopes  are 
best  for  winter  and  the  worst  for  summer  vegetables.  Shallow  soil 
spread  on  porous  rock  is  non-retentive  and  warm  for  winter 
growth,  but  it  may  be  impossible,  even  with  irrigation,  to  carry  good 
succulent  growth  on  it  during  the  blistering  summer  heat.  Then 
the  deep  loams  of  the  creek  borders  and  other  level  lands  delight 
the  gardener  with  the  largest  returns  for  the  least  water. 

Nearness  to  Water  Supply. — The  summer  garden  should  be 
near  the  water  supply,  if  it  be  developed  from  home  sources,  or 
the  water  should  be  piped  to  it,  which  is  almost  equivalent  to  mov- 
ing the  reservoir  to  the  garden  site.  Carriage  of  water  in  a  flume 
entails  losses  by  leakage  and  evaporation  and  earth-ditches  are 
distressingly  wasteful  by  evaporation  and  percolation.  One  often 
sees  water  started  on  its  way  from  the  home-site  tanks  toward  a 
distant  garden,  making  mud-holes  and  losing  volume  all  the  way. 
In  many  cases  another  well-outfit  for  the  sole  use  of  the  garden 
would  be  a  good  investment. 

Nearness  to  the  Home. — If  fairly  good  conditions  exist  near 
the  home  site,  by  all  means  locate  the  garden  there.  It  will  win 
the  interest  and  profits  by  the  attention  of  the  house  folks  and 
will  yield  its  supplies  directly  to  their  hands  in  most  cases.  Be- 
sides, with  the  tools  handy,  spare  hours  now  and  then  will  be  given 
to  its  working  when  the  leisure  is  too  short  to  warrant  or  incline 
one  to  walk  to  a  distant  patch.  The  time  thus  saved  may  almost 
keep  the  garden  going  in  good  shape.  Then,  a  well-kept  garden 
is  an  ornament  and  the  ornamentation  of  our  rural  homes  is  not 
usually  over  rich. 

Protection  from  Intrusion. — To  be  any  comfort  and  gratifica- 
tion whatever  the  farm  garden  must  be  protected  from  intruders. 
One  of  the  chief  objections  to  locating  vegetable  patches  here  and 
there  in  the  best  situations  for  special  purposes  lies  in  the  trouble 
of  excluding  wild  marauders  of  all  sizes  from  a  jack- rabbit  to  a 
deer  and  the  whole  range  of  domestic  invaders  from  the  pasture  or 
corral.  This  fact  alone  compels  many  to  forego  vegetable  planting 
except  in  the  well-fenced  house-yard.  It  is  not  difficult  to  inclose 
a  few  square  rods  with  wire  netting  or  with  the  woven  fence  of 
wire  and  lath,  and  driven  posts — the  whole  to  be  rolled  up  and 
stored  or  moved  to  another  inclosure  as  the  progress  of  the  season 
gives  it  new  uses. 


ARRANGEMENT   FOR    HORSE   WORK  V  101 


A  home-grown  fence  is  quite  possible  in  Calif orriia, J  u'sirig  'for 
pickets  the  southern  cane  or  the  Asiatic  bamboos,  both  of  which 
grow  readily  on  moist  land  in  this  state.  Mr.  C.  A.  Maul  of  Kern 
county  was  recently  reported  to  have  completed  the  construction 
of  a  mile  of  fence,  using  these  canes  for  pickets.  His  plan  was  this : 
Second-hand  railroad  ties  were  bought  and  split  for  posts.  These 
were  set  a  rod  apart.  With  a  machine  that  costs  about  twenty-five 
dollars,  the  canes  were  woven  into  a  web,  using  six  No.  14  wires 
for  the  chain.  The  canes  were  cut  three  and  one-half  feet  long,  the 
fence  posts  are  four  feet  high  and  along  the  top  of  them  a  barbed 
wire  is  stretched,  so  that  when  completed  one  has  a  chicken  or 
rabbit  proof  fence  as  well  as  a  strong  stock  fence.  This  fence,  Mr. 
Maul  says,  can  be  built  for  forty  cents  a  rod  where  one  raises  his 
own  cane.  It  is  very  durable,  the  cane  becoming  as  hard  as  bone 
and  never  rotting;  rabbits  can  not  gnaw  it,  and  it  will  not  ignite 
from  burning  grass  near  it  as  common  pine  fencing  or  lath  will ; 
stock  can  see  it  and  hence  will  not  run  against  it ;  it  can  be  made  of 
any  height  desired,  the  canes  growing  as  high  as  twelve  to  fifteen 
feet;  it  may  be  taken  down,  rolled  up  and  moved  without  injury 
and  at  slight  expense.  In  addition  to  their  use  as  protective  fences 
these  woven  canes  and  wire  serve  as  windbreaks,  sunshades,  etc., 
as  such  may  be  desired  for  temporary  service. 

ARRANGMENT     FOR     HORSE     WORK. 

Although  our  foreign-born  friends  who  do  most  of  the  mar- 
ket garden  work  in  California  retain  their  native  predilection  for 
hand  labor  and  plan  their  gardens  accordingly,  it  is  advisable  that 
farm  vegetable  growers  should  arrange  to  use  as  much  horse 
power  as  possible.  Both  for  this  purpose  and  to  facilitate  furrow 
irrigation  or  seepage  ditch  irrigating,  if  the  slope  suits  it,  the  garden 
should  be  somewhat  brick-shaped,  because  of  the  greater  work 
which  can  be  done  with  the  same  or  fewer  turnings  of  the  horse  or 
team  than  on  a  square  piece.  At  both  ends  there  should  be  a  road- 
way left  for  turning  the  team.  This  shape  is  equally  adapted  for 
flat  or  ridge  cultivation. 

In  the  horse-power  farm  garden  there  should,  of  course,  be 
no  permanent  walks.  If  walks  are  desired,  leave  spaces  length- 
wise unplanted  and  uncultivated  and  smooth  down  the  surface  with 
a  roller.  Such  arrangements,  however,  waste  land  and  waste 
moisture,  for  the  hard  ground  draws  water  laterally.  It  is  better 


102  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 


«•  «••>',>   ,   £ 

economy  therefore  to  evenly  cultivate  the  whole  area.  Lay  out  the 
plantings  in  straight  rows  for  ease  of  cultivation,  and  either  plant 
full  rows  of  each  vegetable  or  continue  the  row  with  another  kind 
which  requires  the  same  distance.  Proper  distances  for  each  vege- 
table will  be  considered  in  subsequent  chapters.  It  is  convenient 
to  make  the  distances  multiples  of  some  unit.  For  instance  two 
feet  between  the  rows  is  about  the  minimum  distance  for  horse 
cultivation.  Some  growers  therefore  plant  at  two,  four,  six,  eight, 
etc.,  feet  distances:  others  start  with  three  feet  and  proceed  with 
six,  nine,  twelve,  etc. — the  latter  for  the  largest  running  vines. 
This  makes  rows  of  the  small,  upright  growers  a  yard  apart,  which 
is  rather  too  great  a  distance  ordinarily. 

It  is  often  a  great  convenience  to  have  permanent  distance 
stake's  set  close  to  the  fences  on  the  ends  of  the  plot  and  placing 
them  the  accepted  unit  apart.  It  is  easy  to  regulate  distances  by 
slipping  the  planting  line  over  the  two  opposite  stakes  which  give 
the  desired  separation.  If  one  has  a  good  horse  and  a  good  eye, 
he  will,  however,  probably  prefer  to  use  a  "marker"  made  with 
thills  and  plow  handles  properly  fastened  to  a  cross-bar  eight  or 
ten  feet  long  and  fitted  with  wooden  teeth  such  distance  apart  as  he 
adopts  as  his  unit  of  distance  between  the  rows.  Starting  then 
with  a  straight  guide-line  on  the  surface  on  one  side,  three  or  four 
parallel  lines  can  be  clearly  marked  at  one  driving  over.  Follow- 
ing these  marks  with  the  garden  drill,  or  with  the  hoe  planting,  very 
straight  lines  of  seeding  can  be  done  in  a  fraction  of  the  time  needed 
to  work  with  a  line.  But  whether  line  or  marker  be  used,  it  is 
desirable  to  rotate  the  plants  year  by  year  so  that  the  narrow  and 
wide  row  plantings  shall  change  places  on  the  plot,  else  one  might 
be  so  supernaturally  accurate  that  the  rows  would  come  everlast- 
ingly on  the  same  lines,  which  would  not  be  desirable  even  if  the  soil 
were  somewhat  displaced  laterally  by  cultivation. 

It  is  a  great  convenience  in  arranging  for  due  succession  in  the 
garden  (which  will  be  farther  considered  in  the  chapter  on  plant- 
ing) to  give  adjacent  rows  to  vegetables  which  mature  at  about  the 
same  time.  By  this  arrangement,  say,  half  or  a  quarter  of  the 
garden  lengthwise  can  be  cleaned  up  at  the  same  time  and  the  whole 
section  be  at  once  replanted  or  plowed  up  for  later  planting  or  irri- 
gating as  may  be  desirable.  Of  course  if  early  plantings  for  win- 
ter use  are  made  in  the  same  plot  with  plantings  which  will  go  into 
the  summer,  each  should  be  in  its  own  quarter  of  the  garden. 


VEGETABLE  GROWING  IN  YOUNG  ORCHARD  103 

In  arranging  the  summer  garden  in  the  interior  heat,  it  is 
sometimes  desirable  to  place  low,  tender-leaved  plants  like  lettuce 
between  rows  of  tall  vegetables  which  afford  it  partial  shade.  Tall 
corn  or  pole  beans  may  thus  take  the  place  of  artificial  screens 
which  might  otherwise  be  necessary. 

VEGETABLE    GROWING    IN     YOUNG    ORCHARD    AND    VINEYARD. 

This  subject  is  usually  discussed  from  the  point  of  view  of 
injury  to  the  trees,  and  rightly  so,  because  the  trees  represent  the 
greater  investment  and  the  greater  expectations,  but  the  lowly 
vegetables  have  a  point  of  view  also  and  by  their  appearance  they 
clearly  declare  that  whether  they  hurt  the  trees  or  not  they  would 
like  a  better  place  on  their  own  account.  It  is  a  fact  that  inter- 
culture  of  vegetables  in  an  orchard  is  soon  abandoned  because  the 
vegetables  do  not  pay  for  the  trouble  and  by  the  sight  of  them  one 
is  not  surprised  that  they  do  not  pay.  It  would  probably  be  much 
better  for  trees,  vegetables  and  owner  if  half  an  acre,  if  for  home 
use,  and  larger  area,  if  for  market,  should  be  kept  free  of  trees  and 
handled  on  a  more  intensive  plan  for  the  production  of  fine  vege- 
tables. When  fruit  prices  were  higher  and  orchard  improvements 
the  only  avenue  to  high  acre-valuation,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
people  tried  to  plant  fruit  trees  everywhere  on  small  tract  pur- 
chases— even  to  making  clothes-line  posts  of  them,  but  now  as 
other  resources  are  receiving  better  proportional  esteem,  a  small, 
first-class  garden  spot,  worked  up  to  the  limits  of  its  possibilities, 
should  receive  attention  not  only  for  constant  money-saving  and 
money-making,  but  as  one  of  the  most  valuable  improvements  on 
the  place. 

There  is  no  particular  disadvantage  or  difficulty  in  growing 
vegetables  in  young  orchards  or  vineyards  providing  conditions 
are  right  for  it.  Fruits  and  vegetables  have  been  associated  in 
gardens,  probably,  ever  since  Adam  failed  through  giving  too 
much  attention  to  fruit.  But  the  association  of  fruits  and  vege- 
tables has  been  successful  upon  the  garden  policy  of  enrichment, 
irrigation,  and  the  highest  known  culture.  This  is  quite  different 
from  the  proposition  as  it  has  arisen  in  California  which  is  to  grow 
vegetables  upon  the  orchard  policy  of  cultivation  for  conserva- 
tion of  moisture  and  trust  to  the  natural  fertility  of  the  land.  It  is 
not  surprising  that  the  soil  often  rebels  at  the  double  burden  as 


104  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

beyond  its  strength  and  dictates  its  terms  to  the  grower — by  so 
much  as  you  gain  of  one  by  so  much  you  shall  lose  of  the  other. 

It  has,  however,  been  shown  in  previous  chapters  on  soils  and 
irrigation  that  California  has  natural  soils  and  situations  which  are 
quite  comparable  with  the  best  conditions  which  intensive  culture 
can  produce  in  the  gardens  of  older  lands  and,  this  being  true,  it  is 
possible  to  draw  upon  their  rich  resources  in  the  same  way.  It  is 
quite  possible  then  to  grow  good  vegetables  between  young  fruit 
trees  and  for  a  certain  period  it  can  be  done  without  irreparable 
injury  to  the  trees,  providing  the  local  conditions  warrant  the  prac- 
tice. These  conditions  may  be  thus  summarized : 

If  the  soil  be  of  only  average  richness,  the  rainfall  moderate 
to  meager  in  amount,  and  no  facilities  for  irrigation,  it  would  be 
unfortunate  to  place  any  other  burden  on  the  land  than  the  growth 
of  the  trees. 

If  the  soil  be  not  over  rich  and  the  rainfall  heavy,  but  the 
moisture  easily  lost  by  percolation  or  evaporation,  owing  to  non- 
retentiveness  of  the  soil,  and  no  irrigation  facilities,  give  the  trees 
all  the  ground  and  the  most  perfect  summer  cultivation  possible. 

If  the  land  be  rich,  the  rainfall  abundant  and  moisture  held 
well  in  the  soil,  or  if  irrigation  can  be  made  use  of,  it  is  fair  to  think 
of  an  inter-crop  during  the  early  years  of  the  orchard,  providing 
the  crop  can  be  profitably  disposed  of,  its  nature  is  such  that  no 
heavy  draft  is  made  on  fertility,  and  the  financial  condition  of  the 
planter  requires  immediate  return  from  the  land,  if  possible. 

It  thus  appears  that  an  inter-crop  is  finally  made  to  hinge  upon 
the  grower's  necessities,  and  the  inference  would  be  that  if  the 
money  is  not  needed  immediately,  it  would  be  wiser  to  hold  the 
whole  strength  of  the  soil  as  an  investment  on  which  returns  are  to 
be  finally  had  in  the  increased  growth  and  fuller  fruiting  of  the 
trees  in  later  years. 

This  views  the  matter  from  a  commercial  point  of  view  and 
therefore  in  its  most  aggravated  form.  If  it  is  merely  a  question  of 
whether  the  home  supply  of  vegetables  shall  be  taken  from  the 
young  orchard  or  vineyard,  it  is  less  serious  and  deserves  a  stronger 
affirmative. 

In  growing  vegetables  between  the  rows  of  trees  or  vines, 
much  depends  of  course  upon  the  time  and  the  way  it  is  done.  If 
water  can  be  applied  between  the  rows  late  in  the  summer  in  such 
a  way  that  it  will  not  prevent  the  deciduous  trees  from  going  for- 


OBJECTIONS  TO  VEGETABLES  IN  ORCHARD  105 

ward  to  their  usual  dormancy,  or  if  the  grower  waits  until  the  fall 
rains  wet  the  ground  sufficiently  and  then  puts  in  his  vegetables  for 
late  fall  and  winter  growth  without  extending  them  too  near  the 
trees,  he  can  make  his  winter  garden,  enjoy  its  produce,  and  plow 
in  the  debris  so  early  in  the  spring  that  no  appreciable  injury  will 
be  done  to  the  trees,  unless  he  is  on  that  line  of  light  rainfall  where 
every  possible  effort  is  demanded  to  receive  and  conserve  all  the 
water  that  falls.  If  that  be  the  case  he  has  to  cultivate  to  conserve 
moisture  both  winter  and  summer  and  should  not  think  even  of 
winter  vegetables  in  the  orchard. 

Perhaps  the  chief  objection  to  winter  vegetable  growing  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  crop  is  planted  too  late  and  is  allowed  to 
occupy  the  ground  so  late  in  the  spring  that  the  soil  can  not  be 
brought  into  fine  tilth  which  is  necessary  to  save  moisture.  Instead 
of  this  the  impacted  ground  on  which  the  vegetables  stood  is  turned 
up  in  clods  which  no  amount  of  crushing  will  reduce  to  tilth  and 
the  orchard  loses  by  defective  cultivation  more  moisture  than  the 
vegetables  consumed  in  their  growth. 

The  summer  growth  of  vegetables  in  the  orchard  is  a  more 
dangerous  operation  and  whether  it  should  be  undertaken  or  not 
depends  upon  local  conditions  p'reviously  outlined.  Perhaps  a 
specific  instance  may  enforce  the  point  and  show  what  may  be 
taken  as  favored  soil  and  moisture  conditions.  In  the  lower  lands 
of  the  Santa  Clara  valley  near  San  Jose  there  have  been  constant 
contributions  to  fertility  by  overflows  from  mountain  water  bring- 
ing leaf  mold  and  other  materials  found  in  the  deposits  of  "slum," 
which  renew  and  keep  up  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Much  of  this 
land  has  been  under  cultivation  forty  years  and  upwards,  and  yet 
is  known  as  garden  soil.  Much  of  this  land  is  adobe,  naturally 
remarkably  productive,  aside  from  its  benefits  from  overflow.  Such 
soils  have  proved  able  to  produce,  without  apparent  exhaustion, 
orchard  trees  and  the  crops  that  are  grown  among  them.  There  is 
an  abundance  of  artesian  water  for  use  when  needed.  It  has  been 
a  common  custom  in  this  artesian  belt,  so  noted  for  strawberries, 
to  grow  onions  on  the  ridges  between  strawberry  rows,  and  along 
the  sides  of  other  berry  bushes.  Onions  are  thus  grown  during 
several  successive  years  until  the  ground  is  too  crowded.  Beets, 
carrots,  peas,  and  other  vegetables  are  sometimes  grown  among  the 
berries.  Crops  of  onion  seed  have  been  grown  among  the  trees  of 
young  orchards  without  irrigation  and  the  trees  have  done  quite 


106  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

as  well  as  when  they  had  the  ground  all  to  themselves.  Free  use 
of  the  culitivator  has  kept  the  ground  loose  and  moist,  after  one 
or  two  plowings.  By  irrigating  in  the  fall,  the  ground  can  be 
plowed  so  as  to  start  the  onions  before  the  rains,  though  this  is  not 
usually  done.  Onions  planted  any  time  between  October  and 
February  may  be  considered  best,  though  much  depends  on  the 
season.  It  should  be  understood  that,  aside  from  the  favoring 
soil  and  artesian  wells,  this  locality  is  in  line  with  the  summer 
breezes  that  come  in  from  the  ocean  through  the  Golden  Gate,  forty 
miles  away,  adding  moisture  to  temper  the  otherwise  heated  atmos- 
phere of  the  valley. 

Such  land  will  carry  all  growths  that  can  find  standing  room 
on  it.  Similar  conditions  are  found  on  low,  moist  valley  lands  in 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  state,  both  in  the  coast  and  the  interior  val- 
leys. The  land  has  such  wealth  of  plant  food  and  moisture  that 
summer  weed-killing,  which  is  not  common  in  California,  is  quite  a 
problem.  Where  weeds  will  grow  in  spite  of  ordinarily  good  sum- 
mer cultivation,  the  land  will  stand  almost  covering  with  useful 
plants  and  it  costs  little  more  to  grow  them  than  to  keep  down  the 
wonderful  weeds. 


CHAPTER    X. 

THE   PLANTING  SEASON. 

The  chapter  on  California  climates  as  related  to  vegetable 
growing  has  already  shown  that  there  is  really  no  closed  season  in 
the  state  except  in  the  mountain  districts.  It  is  always  time  to 
plant  something,  if  the  moisture  is  available,  for  there  is  no  degree 
of  cold  realized  which  endangers  the  hardier  vegetables.  It  is 
true  that  in  December  and  January  in  the  regions  of  heavy  rain- 
fall, there  is  apt  to  be  a  cold,  wet  surface  soil  which  does  not  give 
a  hospitable  welcome  either  to  seed  or  seedlings,  but  even  this  can 
be  overcome  by  using  lighter  soil  at  a  little  higher  elevation  or  by 
the  devices  for  raising  the  seed-bed  unless  one  wishes  to  wait  for 
February  planting  as  is  commonly  done  in  such  places.  The  anti- 
thesis of  the  December  and  January  cold  is  the  July  and  August 
heat  and  drought  in  the  interior,  but  this,  too,  is  conquerable  by 
irrigation,  with  added  shade  for  some  tender-leafed  plants,  or  by 
choosing  moist,  low  land,  of  which  California  valleys  both  on  the 
coast  and  in  the  interior  have  great  areas.  The  conclusion  of  the 
whole  matter  is  that  California  valleys  and  foot-hills  are  naturally 
fitted  for  almost  endless  succession  of  sowings  and  gatherings  and 
such  temporary  unfitness  as  locally  occurs  is  easily  overcome  by 
very  simple  cultural  arts  and  provisions.  Still  there  are  best  times 
for  doing  things  for  specific  purposes  and  many  of  these  can  only 
be  learned  by  local  experience.  An  attempt  will  be  made  however 
to  give  hints  to  new-comers,  or  to  the  many  who  have  not  essayed 
vegetable  growing  and  have  thus  neglected  glorious  opportunities, 
which  will  enable  them  to  realize,  it  is  hoped,  some  directions  in 
which  promising  efforts  may  be  put  forth. 

Seasonable  Work  in  the  Garden. — In  view  of  the  fact  already 
emphasized  that  the  planting  season  extends  throughout  the  year 
and  is  regulated  by  local  conditions  and  not  by  the  calendar,  it  fol- 
lows that  other  garden  work  constantly  recurs,  and  it  would  be  a 
hopeless  task  to  attempt  to  specify  certain  times  at  which  certain 

(107) 


108  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES 

work  should  be  done.  The  vegetable  grower  must  use  his 
own  powers  of  observation  and  common  sense,  and  not  expect  to 
find  in  print  the  injunction  that  on  a  certain  day  he  must  do  a  cer- 
tain thing.  It  may  be  possible  to  make  such  prescriptions  in  more 
steady-going  climates,  but  in  our  diverse  local  climates,  which  are 
either  forcing  or  retarding,  according  to  localities,  and  according 
to  times  of  the  year  in  the  same  locality,  it  is  impossible  to  say  just 
when  a  crop  planted  at  a  certain  time  should  be  hoed  or  cultivated, 
trained  up  or  gathered,  and  the  ground  cleared  up  for  other  uses. 
All  such  acts  will  be  omitted  from  our  California  garden  calendar. 
Let  it  be  understood  rather  that  the  grower  must  be  always  on  the 
alert  to  do  certain  things 'without  suggestion  from  any  one,  viz.:, 

First:  Stir  the  ground  as  soon  as  it  will  take  tools  well  after 
the  young  plants  have  appeared  above  the  surface,  and  thin  the 
plants  in  the  row  to  allow  proper  space  for  attaining  good  size. 
With  some  strong  growing  shoots  from  large,  deeply  covered  seeds, 
it  may  be  sometimes  desirable  to  lightly  harrow  or  rake  the  whole 
surface  before  the  shoots  appear:  it  is  better  to  break  off  some 
shoots  than  to  have  them  all  under  a  crust. 

Second :  Continue  stirring  afterwards  whenever  the  soil 
works  well,  for  weed  killing  if  there  be  any ;  if  not  stir  stir  the  sur- 
face just  the  same. 

Third:  Continue  stirring  so  long  as  the  cultivator  does  not 
seriously  injure  the  plant  by  breaking  its  stems  and  foliage,  and 
then  use  the  hoe  carefully  to  prevent  the  ground  becoming  com- 
pacted near  the  stem  in  places  not  reached  by  the  cultivator. 

Fourth:  Keep  the  condition  of  the  plant  constantly  in  sight 
and  thought,  to  train  or  trim  its  growth  to  attain  best  results.  Such 
treatment  for  each  plant  will  naturally  be  noted  in  the  place  devoted 
to  its  special  consideration  later. 

Fifth:  Watch  for  the  attainment  of  such  degree  of  maturity 
as  makes  each  plant  most  desirable  for  food  purposes.  The  slack 
gardener  is  apt  to  allow  his  vegetables  to  become  stale  or  over-ripe 
in  the  rows,  and  in  that  way  miss  their  best  estate. 

Sixth:  Gather  promptly  and  dispose  of  each,  either  by  eating 
or  selling,  when  it  reaches  this  condition  and  quickly  clear  away  the 
remains  of  the  growth  for  stock  feed  or  for  the  compost  heap. 
Do  not  allow  the  plants  to ,  stand  for  the  purpose  of  gather- 
ing seed  from  the  culls  which  are  rejected  at  picking.  Select  the 
earliest  and  best  specimens  for  seed  if  any  seed  is  to  be  saved.  It 


CALIFORNIA    GARDEN    CALENDAR  109 

is,  however,  only  in  exceptional  cases  that  the  farm  gardener  should 
save  his  own  seed.  It  is  better  to  buy  up-to-date  varieties  from  those 
who  make  a  business  of  selection  and  improvement  of  garden 
varieties.  Keep  the  garden  always  clean  and  ready  for  something 
else.  It  is  a  mistake  to  let  the  garden  lie  neglected  until  the  time 
for  a  spring  revolution  and  upheaval,  like  that  which  Eastern 
gardeners  are  forced  to  content  themselves  with.  Of  course,  the 
error  of  stirring  the  soil  when  too  wet  must  be  carefully  guarded 
against,  but  there  is  much  beside  digging  involved  in  gardening. 

Seventh :  Irrigate,  if  necessary,  and  work  the  soil  at  once 
after  cleaning  up.  Do  not  lose  moisture  by  allowing  the  surface  to 
become  hard.  No  matter  whether  the  ground  is  to  be  used  for  an 
immediate  succession  or  whether  it  is  to  lie  for  some  time,  break 
up  the  surface  and  make  it  fit  to  receive  water  or  retain  water,  as 
the  case  may  be. 

These  timely  and  important  acts  will  not  appear  in  our  cal- 
endar for  the  reasons  first  stated.  They  are  always  in  order  in 
California,  and  if  a  man  has  to  be  told  more  than  once  to  do  them, 
there  are  serious  doubts  of  his  ever  having  been  called  to  be  a 
vegetable  grower. 

CALIFORNIA  GARDEN  CALENDAR. 

As  shown  in  the  chapter  on  climate,  the  timeliness  of  certain 
operations  in  California  is  not  regulated  by  geography  nor  lati- 
tude, but  by  topography  and  environment,  by  moisture-conditions, 
either  natural  or  acquired,  and  by  the  beginning  and  ending  of  the 
frost-free  period.  The  broken  country  of  the  northwest  quarter  of 
the  state,  and  the  mountain  elevations  which  are  everywhere  liable 
to  snowfall,  constitute  regions  which  differ  from  the  coast  valley, 
interior  valley  and  foothill  regions  both  north  and  south,  and  are 
therefore  to  a  certain  degree  out  of  our  calculation,  though  an  ef- 
fort will  be  made  to  include  some  recognition  of  their  practice. 
The  outline  to  be  made  of  timely  work  is  intended  to  cover  the 
state  in  all  parts  except  where  wintry  conditions  in  greater  or  less 
degree  intrude.  Our  seasons,  shading  into  each  other  without 
striking  division  lines,  make  it  necessary  to  select  a  somewhat  arbi- 
trary point  of  beginning  for  a  garden  calendar.  The  point  midway 
between  the  closing  of  one  rainy  season  and  the  beginning  of  an- 
other is,  by  virtue  of  its  draught-and-heat-effects  on  the  rainfall 
garden,  and  its  heat-effects  even  on  ground  kept  moist  by  irriga- 


110  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

tion  or  underflow,  the  time  when  garden  growth  is  about  at  its 
lowest  point.  It  is  also  a  time  when  preparations  are  to  be  made 
for  the  earliest  sowing.  The  arrangement  is  somewhat  arbitrary, 
as  confessed  above,  but  it  accords  best  with  all  matters  involved  to 
look  upon  the  month  of  July  as  the  beginning  of  the  California 
year  in  vegetable  growing. 

JULY. 

On  ground  moistened  anew  by  underflow  from  rising  rivers 
or  by  percolation  from  irrigation  ditches  on  higher  orchard  slopes, 
or  on  land  cleared  of  an  earlier  crop,  irrigated  and  well  worked,  it 
is  possible  to  plant  vegetables  in  July  for  late  fall  or  winter  use. 
String  beans,  beets,  carrots,  corn,  peas,  parsnips,  potatoes,  salsify, 
squashes,  turnips,  etc.  will  all  come  on  rapidly  if  adequate  moisture 
is  furnished  and  frosts  are  reasonably  late.  Melons  are  also  suc- 
cessfully thus  sown  and  with  heat  enough  will  mature  in  Septem- 
ber from  July  planting.  Near  the  coast,  or  in  the  interior,  with 
shade,  cucumbers,  lettuce,  radishes  and  other  salads  will  thrive. 
Cabbage  and  cauliflower  seed  sown  in  proper  beds  or  boxes,  soon 
gives  plants  for  later  setting  which  will  mature  for  Christmas 
and  on  through  the  early  winter;  if  not  caught  by  frost,  tomatoes 
will  also  come  through  from  such  a  start. 

AUGUST. 

Corn  and  potatoes  planted  in  August  may  still  have  time  to 
reach  satisfactory  condition  of  maturity,  except  where  frosts  are 
expected  early.  Cabbage  and  cauliflower  seed  will  give  plants 
for  proper  winter  succession;  turnips  on  irrigated  ground  will  also 
give  winter  crop.  Onion  seed  may  be  sown  for  sets.  August  is 
a  sort  of  divide  in  garden  work.  It  is  rather  late  to  sow  for  fall 
use  and  rather  soon  to  sow  for  winter  use,  and  still  August  planting 
is  practiced  by  many  where  local  conditions  take  kindly  to  it. 

SEPTEMBER. 

Planting  must  still  proceed  upon  moisture  by  irrigation,  and 
planting  for  early  winter  use  is  still  in  order.  Peas  started  with  ir- 
rigation and  carried  until  rainfall  is  adequate,  will  be  ready  for 
Christmas  in  regions  where  only  light  frosts  occur,  for  peas  are 


WINTER    WORK  111 

quite  hardy.  Cabbage  and  cauliflower  should  be  sown  in  the  seed- 
bed for  succession  of  plants — in  some  places  they  grow  slowly  and 
can  be  taken  out  for  planting  until  February.  Beets  and  salsify 
will  start  for  early  summer  use,  and  potatoes  for  the  holidays. 
Lettuce  and  onions  can  be  sown  in  place  or  plants  may  be  grown 
in  a  seed  bed  for  planting  out  after  the  rains  come.  In  strictly 
frostless  places,  string  beans,  egg-plant,  and  tomatoes  are  planted 
for  very  early  crop. 

OCTOBER. 

It  is  still  time  to  plant  beets,  cabbage,  radishes,  spinach,  onions 
lettuce,  turnips  and  salsify  for  midwinter  and  spring  use.  Peas  of 
early  variety  may  still  make  the  Christmas  table  in  a  favorable 
locality.  Beans,  eggplant,  and  tomatoes  are  still  sown  for  early 
crop  in  frostless  places. 

NOVEMBER. 

Still  plant  for  succession.  Peas,  lettuce,  radishes,  cabbage, 
onions,  beets,  spinach,  salsify,  turnips.  The  coast  valleys  are  now 
usually  moist  enough  to  carry  all  these  hardy  vegetables  without 
irrigation,  for  late  winter  and  early  spring  use.  Asparagus  roots 
are  in  shape  for  planting.  Potatoes,  beans,  eggplant  and  to- 
matoes are  planted  in  frostless  places  for  early  crop. 

DECEMBER. 

The  higher  lands  of  the  interior  valley  are  usually  ready  for 
the  rainfall  garden.  Beets,  cabbage,  cauliflower,  carrots,  lettuce, 
onions,  peas,  radishes,  spinach  and  turnips  are  hardy,  though  some 
roots  sown  at  this  time  will  in  some  places  go  to  seed  in  the  spring 
instead  of  enlarging.  Potatoes  are  planted  on  slopes,  well  out  of 
hard  frosts.  In  northerly  coast  valleys  the  soil  is  often  too  cold 
and  wet  to  make  seed  sowing  wise.  In  such  places  the  growth  gets 
a  poor  start.  This  depends  greatly,  however,  upon  the  character 
of  the  rainy  season  for  that  particular  year. 

JANUARY. 

On  warmer,  drier  valley  lands  in  regions  of  light  rainfall  or 
on  protected  hillsides  plantings  of  beets,  cabbage,  carrots,  peas, 
turnips,  lettuce,  radishes  and  onions  are  usually  wise.  In  colder 


112  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

regions  lettuce  and  onions  and  radishes  are  hardy,  and  thrive  if 
raised  out  of  the  wet,  and  cabbage,  cauliflower,  peppers,  celery,  to- 
mato seed  should  go  into  seed  beds  to  grow  plants  for  later  plant- 
ing out.  Asparagus,  horse  radish  and  rhubarb  roots  can  be  planted 
out  in  well-drained  ground.  It  is  the  first  great  potato  planting 
month  for  regions  of  light  rainfall  or  on  warm,  well-drained 
slopes  in  regions  of  heavier  rains.  But  on  low  valley  lands  in  wet 
regions,  January  is  often  too  stormy  and  cold  for  open-air  work, 
as  has  just  been  said  of  December. 

FEBRUARY. 

February  is  the  great  planting  month,  for  everything  but  the 
very  tender  plants,  like  beans,  tomatoes,  peppers,  the  squash  family, 
etc.,  can  now  proceed  with  assurance  of  adequate  heat  and  moisture. 
It  is  the  month  for  the  dilatory  man  who  has  missed  his  earliest 
opportunities  to  fill  the  ground  with  seed,  and  it  is  the  time  when 
plantings  in  small  frosty  and  rainy  valleys,  which  have  been  de- 
ferred because  the  ground  was  too  cold  and  wet  to  start  seeds  and 
plants  well,  may  be  confidently  made.  Successions  and  rotations 
are  in  order,  as  the  fall-planted  vegetables  are  cleared  away.  Early 
small  plantings  of  string-beans,  melons  and  cucumbers  will  often 
carry  through  or  can  be  easily  replanted  if  the  frost  catches  them. 
Potatoes  are  widely  planted  and  will  seldom  be  killed,  though  they 
may  be  cut  back,  except  on  low  ground,  which  should  be  planted 
later.  Chicory  is  sown,  and  sowing  of  sugar  beets  as  a  field  crop 
for  the  factory,  begins  in  February,  on  the  warmer,  drier  lands. 

MARCH. 

Later  plantings  of  all  sorts  of  hardy  vegetables  for  success- 
sion  is  pursued.  The  venturesome  on  higher,  warmer  lands  try 
corn,  melons,  squashes,  tomatoes,  and  continue  planting  beans. 
Cantaloupes  are  planted  for  main  crop  in  Imperial  Valley.  Sugar 
beets  are  largely  sown  for  factory  use.  Sweet  potatoes  should  go 
into  the  hot-bed  for  slipping. 

APRIL. 

April  is  another  month  for  succession  planting  of  hardy  vege- 
tables, but  it  is  getting  late  except  where  moisture  is  ample  and 


SPRING    WORK  113 

late  showers  quite  certain.  Tender  plants  are  out  of  serious  dan- 
ger except  in  especially  frosty  places.  Beans  can  be  confidently 
planted.  Peppers,  tomatoes,  eggplant,  sweet  potatoes  and  other 
growths  started  under  cover  can  be  brought  to  the  open  ground. 
Corn,  melons  and  squashes  can  be  safely  planted  as  field  crops. 
The  season's  race  is  well  along  in  its  last  quarter,  and  heat  and 
drought  have  already  made  hay  and  are  ripening  the  grain. 


MAY. 

Everything  for  which  there  can  be  assured  ample  moisture 
can  still  be  planted  in  the  moderate  heat  of  the  coast  regions,  but 
it  is  late  for  shallow-rooting  plants  to  take  hold  in  the  interior  heat, 
even  with  irrigation.  Heat-loving  plants,  like  watermelons,  corn, 
sweet  potatoes,  etc.,  will  grow  grandly  with  moisture  enough.  On 
the  coast,  Lima  beans,  sugar  beets  for  late  crop,  corn  and  roots  for 
fall  use  will  do  well  if  well  cultivated.  All  planting  now  which  is 
well  taken  care  of  will  carry  its  verdure  and  its  crop  to  refresh  the 
grower  in  the  midst  of  the  dry  season.  It  is  a  time  to  seek  and  use 
moist  land  or  to  count  on  soon  employing  the  fullest  irrigation 
facilities  the  place  affords. 

JUNE. 

June  completes  the  garden  year.  It  is  the  last  chance  to  plant, 
and  it  is  useless  to  plant  at  all  except  on  land  moist  naturally  or 
by  irrigation.  It  is  the  last  chance  to  get  a  second  crop  on  land 
which  has  given  produce.  In  the  garden  clear  up  all  that  has 
matured  of  the  winter  plantings,  irrigate  well,  plow  and  quickly 
fine  the  surface  and  put  in  beans,  beets,  cabbage  plants,  corn,  melons, 
potatoes,  squash,  tomato  plants,  and  a  succession  of  small  truck, 
and  be  sure  that  they  do  not  lack  moisture,  or  their  courses  will  be 
short  and  unprofitable. 

TABULAR  SHOWINGS  OF  TIMES   OF  PLANTING. 

To  afford  the  reader  a  condensed  view  of  the  facts  noted  in 
the  foregoing  suggestions  for  the  months,  tabular  showings  are 
prepared.  These  are  not  made  from  theoretical  generalizations, 
but  are  prepared  from  records  of  actual  practice  which  the  writer 


114 


CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 


has  been  collecting  for  the  last  thirty  years.  It  would  be  easy  to 
add  more  data  to  the  tables  as  inferences  from  what  is  laid  down, 
but  readers  can  do  that  for  themselves.  It  is  beyond  question,  for 
instance,  that  a  vegetable  planted  in  May  and  July  could  also  be 
planted  in  June,  and  is  no  doubt  planted  in  June  in  actual  practice. 
But  to  present  tables  which  are  actual  and  not  inferential,  only 
affirmative  and  specific  cases  are  given  place.  The  work  of  several 
hundred  growers  is  condensed  into  these  tables. 

Separate  showings  are  made  for  southern  California  and  for 
the  valley  and  foothill  portions  of  the  upper  part  of  the  state.  It 
will  be  seen  that  they  strikingly  agree.  There  are  practically  frost- 
less  regions  near  the  coast  in  southern  California  which  are  not 
found  elsewhere  in  the  state,  although  it  is  only  with  the  tenderest 
growths  that  the  difference  becomes  apparent.  Other  vegetables 
take  about  the  same  courses  in  early  regions,  both  north  and  south. 
Still  it  is  well  to  reduce  the  fact  to  a  set  of  records  such  as  these 
tables  embody. 

TIMES  FOR  PLANTING  CERTAIN  VEGETABLES   IN  VALLEY  AND  FOOTHILL 
REGIONS   OF  SOUTHERN    CALIFORNIA. 


*2          *2          *2 


*2          *2          *2 


Beans 

Beets 

Cabbage 

Carrots 

Cauliflower ^  ",'. 

Celery 

Corn : *       * 

Cucumbers :.,  <•  '. 

Eggplant 

Lettuce 

Melons *       

Onions 

Peas *       * 

Potatoes *       *       *- 

Potatoes,  sweet 

Radishes *       *       *       * 

Salsify *       * 

Spinach , 

Squash .  

Tomatoes 

Turnips .  . 


*3  *3  *  * 


*.}  *3  * 


*2        *2        *2 


*3  *  *  * 

*2          *2          *3  *  *  * 


1  On  irrigated  land. 

2  Frostless  situations  near  southern  coast. 

3  Taking  the  chances  of  occasional  frost  and  replanting  in  some  places. 


FROST    EFFECTS  115 

TIMES  FOR  PLANTING  CERTAIN  VEGETABLES  IN  VALLEY  AND  FOOTHILL 
REGIONS  OF  CENTRAL  AND  NORTHERN  CALIFORNIA. 

t  |  1  5  I  $   §  I  |  1  I  1 

»— i^c/^OZQ^fo^-^^^— > 

*         *         *         * 


Beans ' 

Beets 

Cabbage 

Carrots 

Cauliflower 

Celery 

Corn 

Cucumbers 

Eggplant 

Lettuce ; *       *       *       *       *       *       *       *       *       *       *       * 

Melons *       *       *       * 

Onions . .      . .      *       *       *       *       *       * 

Peas *       *       *       *       *       *       *       *       * 

Potatoes *       *       *       *       *       *       *       * 

Potatoes,  sweet 

Radishes *       *       *       *       *       *       *       *       *       *       *       * 

Salsify *        .  .  •    ;t'_  .- *        *       *        .  . 

Spinach *       *       * 

Squash *        *       *       * 

Tomatoes *       *       *• 

Turnips *       *        ..      *       *  *       *       *       *       *       * 


THE   FROST   FACTOR. 

The  intrusion  of  the  frost  period  is  a  local  limitation  of  the 
planting  season.  Each  vegetable  grower  should  keep  records  of 
frost  occurrence  for  his  own  guidance  in  future  operations  and  for 
the  public  benefit,  for  the  government  weather  service  is  very 
anxious  to  get  local  observations  on  this  point. 

During  the  last  decade  the  San  Francisco  office  of  the  United 
States  Weather  Bureau  has  given  particular  attention  to  frost 
phenomena,  including  conditions  of  occurrence  and  prevention,  and 
the  publications  by  the  local  officer  in  charge,  Prof.  Alexander  G. 
McAdie,  comprise  the  best  knowledge  on  the  subject. 

The  discussion  in  the  chapter  on  California  Climate  as  Related 
to  Vegetable  Growing  shows  that  weather  conditions  are  every- 
where dependent  to  a  degree  on  local  topography  and  environment, 
even  though  there  are  regional  characters  which  must  be  under- 
stood. In  this  place  it  is  fitting  to  emphasize  especially  the  dates 
at  which  killing  frosts  have  occurred  in  a  large  number  of  localities, 
because  such  dates  are  seldom  accurately  remembered  even  in  the 


4  On  irrigated  or  naturally  moist  low  land. 


116  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

localities  concerned.  The  table  which  we  have  compiled  and  ar- 
ranged in  our  own  way,  according  to  districts,  from  data  kindly 
furnished  by  Prof.  McAdie,  should  be  studied  with  the  following 
points  in  view : 

First.  The  dates  represent  the  first  and  last  dates  of  killing 
frosts  in  each  place  during  a  decade.  In  most  cases  probably  the 
dates  are  not  in  the  same  year.  We  wish  to  show  the  ''worst  ever" 
at  each  place. 

Second.  Obviously,  then,  frosts  at  such  dates  are  not  to  be 
often  expected,  and  planters  may  usually  take  the  risk  of  planting 
somewhat  earlier  and  having  tender  plants  mature  somewhat  later, 
as  will  be  discussed  in  the  next  chapter.  At  the  same  time  large 
plantings  for  a  main  or  standard  crop  should  be  generally  held  back 
for  the  local  frost-free  period  which  the  dates  in  the  tables  supply 
for  each  place. 

Third.  Always  remember,  however,  that  there  may  be  situa- 
tions adjacent  to  the  place  where  the  record  is  made  in  which  frost 
"may  be  earlier  or  later,  or  both,  according  to  the  variations  in  local 
topography,  exposure,  etc.,  as  explained  in  the  chapter  on  Climate. 
There  are  also  a  few  widely  separated  situations  which  may  be 
considered  almost,  if  not  quite,  frostless. 

Fourth.  The  tables  give  the  elevation  in  feet  above  sea  level 
in  each  case.  This  factor  does  influence  frost  occurrence  in  a  large 
way,  but  local  frost  phenomena  are  often  determined  by  the  relative 
elevation  of  situations  in  the  same  vicinity  and  by  other  conditions 
of  topography  affecting  the  movement  of  cold  air  and  counter  cur- 
rents, perhaps,  of  warm  air. 

Fifth.  Thus  it  should  appear  that  after  all  the  writer  can  do 
to  help  the  reader  determine  what  his  planting  practice  should  be 
with  reference  to  frost  occurrence,  it  still  remains  with  the  latter 
to  do  all  that  he  can  to  understand  his  immediate  spot  of  land 
through  the  teaching  of  his  own  observation  and  experience. 

DATES   OF   SPRING  AND   FALL   KILLING   FROSTS   AT   PLACES    NAMED. 

Latest  Earliest 

Location  and  County  Elevation          Spring  Autumn 

Upper  Coast  Region 

Crescent  City,  Del  Norte 50  June  19  Sept.  30 

Eureka,  Humboldt 64  May  1  Nov.  7 

Upper  Mattole,  Humboldt 244  Apr.  26  Oct.  20 

Ukiah,  Mendocino 620  May  2  .        Oct.  16 


DATES  OF  KILLING  FROSTS  117 

Latest  Earliest 

Location  and  County  Elevation  Spring  Autumn 

Upper  Coast  Region — Continued 

Fort  Bragg,  Mendocino 74  Mar.  18  Nov.  5 

Fort  Ross,  Sonoma 100  Mar.  21  Dec.  18 

Cloverdale,  Sonoma 340  Mar.  25  Nov.  2 

Santa  Rosa,  Sonoma 181  May  10  Oct.  29 

Peachland,  Sonoma 220  Apr.  11  Oct.  18 

Sonoma,  Sonoma 30  Apr.  12  Dec.  2 

Calistoga,  Napa 363  May  1  Oct. 

Napa,  Napa 60  Mar.  30  Nov.  7 

Upper  Lake,  Lake 1350  Apr.  23  Sept.  29 

Sacramento  Valley  and  Foothills 

Redding,  Shasta 552  May  1  Oct.  17 

Red  Bluff,  Tehama 307  Apr.  19  Nov.  7 

Rosewood,  Tehama 865  Apr.  12  Oct.  4 

Corning,  Tehama 277  Mar.  26  Nov.  2 

Chico,  Butte 193  Apr.  10  Nov.  6 

Durham,  Butte 160  Apr.  4  Oct.  22 

Biggs,  Butte 98  May  10  Nov.  23 

Oroville,  Butte 250  Apr.  30  Nov.  23 

Palermo,  Butte 213  Apr.  7  Nov.  14 

Fruto,  Glenn 624  Apr.  4  Nov.  23 

Willows,  Glenn , 136  Apr.  26  Nov.  28 

Dunnigan,  Yolo 65  Feb.  25  Nov.  24 

Guinda,  Yolo ! 350  May  1  Nov.  16 

Woodland,  Yolo 63  Apr.  26  Nov.  26 

Davis,  Yolo 51  Apr.  4  Oct.  22 

Vacaville,  Solano 175  Apr.  4  Nov.  24 

Elmira,  Solano '.  .  .  75  Apr.  4  Oct.  26 

Suisun,  Solano .20  Apr.  4  Nov.  13 

Sacramento,  Sacramento '35  Apr.  26  Oct.  17 

Folsom,  Sacramento 252  Apr.  11  Nov.  24 

Wheatland,  Yuba 84  Apr.  9  Nov.  7 

Auburn,  Placer 1360  May  2  Oct.  15 

Colfax,  Placer 2421  May  1  Dec.  5 

Eldorado,  Eldorado 1609  Apr.  26  Dec.  20 

Placerville,  Eldorado 1820  Apr.  28  Nov.  28 

Georgetown,  Eldorado 2650  May  1  Oct.  15 

Nevada  City,  Nevada 2580  May  30  Sept.  29 

North  Bloomfield,  Nevada 3200  May  22  Oct.  1 

Jackson,  Amador 1900  Apr.  28  Oct.  14 

Central  Coast  Region 

San  Francisco,  San  Francisco 207  Mar.  27  Dec.  18 

Oakland,  Alameda 36  Feb.  15  Dec.  15 

Berkeley,  Alameda 320  Feb.  19  Dec.  14 

Niles,  Alameda 87  Apr.  29  Oct.  17 

San  Leandro,  Alameda 50  Mar.  28  Nov.  24 

Livermore,  Alameda 485  Apr.  12  Nov.  9 

Menlo  Park,  San  Mateo 64  Feb.  13  Dec.  18 

San  Jose,  Santa  Clara 95  Apr.  9  Oct.  22 

Santa  Clara,  Santa  Clara 90  Apr.  9  Nov.  24 

Los  Gatos,  Santa  Clara 600  Mar.  8  Dec.  9 

Gilroy,  Santa  Clara 193  May  11  Nov.  6 

Santa  Cruz,  Santa  Cruz 20  Apr.  1  Nov.  23 

Laurel,  Santa  Cruz 910  Mar.  12  Oct.  24 


118 


CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 


Location  and  County 
Central  Coast  Region — Continued 

Apt05,  Santa  Cruz 

Watsonville,  Santa  Cruz 

Hollister,  San  Benito 

Salinas,  Monterey 

Soledad,  Monterey 

San  Ardo,  Monterey 

San  Miguel,  San  Luis  Obispo 

Paso  Robles,  San  Luis  Obispo 

San  Luis  Obispo,  San  Luis  Obispo .  .  . 


Elevation 


102 

23 

284 

40 

183 

236 

616 

800 

201 


Latest 
Spring 


Mar.  31 

Apr.  8 

Apr.  22 

Apr.  1 

Feb.  13 

Apr.  10 

Mar.  8 

Apr.  26 

May  18 


Earliest 
Autumn 


Oct.  31 

Sept.  22 

Oct.  17 

Nov.  21 

Nov.  30 

Dec.  9 

Oct.  22 

Oct.  30 

Oct.  18 


San  Joaquin  Valley  and  Foothills 

Antioch,  Contra  Costa 

Lodi,  San  Joaquin 

Tracy,  San  Joaquin 

Milton,  Calaveras 

Mokelumne,  Calaveras 

West  Point,  Calaveras 

Jackson,  Amador 

Merced,  Merced 

Fresno,  Fresno 

Selma,  Fresno 

Kingsburg,  Fresno 

Hanford,  Kings 

Visalia,  Tulare 

Lemon  Grove,  Tulare 

Porterville,  Tulare 

Tulare,  Tulare 

Dinuba,  Tulare 


46 

35 

64 

660 

1550 

2326 

1900 

173 

293 

311 

301 

249 

334 

600 

461 

274 

335 


Feb.  1 

Apr.  9 

Mar.  14 

Apr.  7 

Apr.  28 

June  15 

Apr.  28 

Mar.  28 

Mar.  31 

Mar.  31 

Apr.  28 

Apr.  29 

Apr.  11 

Feb.  16 

Mar.  10 

Apr.  11 

Mav  2 


Dec.  5 

Oct.  18 

Nov.  24 

Nov.  29 

Nov.  17 

Oct.  7 

Oct.  14 

Nov.  28 

Nov.  1 1 

Oct.  20 

Dec.  23 

Oct.  25 

Nov.  16 

Dec.  9 

Nov.  26 

Oct.  20 

Nov.  27 


Southern  California 

Santa  Barbara,  Santa  Barbara 130  Mar.  18  Nov.  30 

Santa  Paula,  Ventura 350  Feb.  16  Dec.  12 

Los  Angeles,  Los  Angeles 293  Mar.  9  Dec.  13 

Anaheim,  Orange 134  Apr.  17  Dec.  12 

Riverside,  Riverside 851  Apr.  2  Nov.  12 

San  Jacinto,  Riverside 1550  Apr.  .  8  Nov.  25 

Redlands,  San  Bernardino 1352  Apr.  9  Nov.  24 

Escondido,  San  Diego 657  Mar.  18  Dec.  7 

Poway,  San  Diego 460  Feb.  15  Nov.  18 

El  Cajon,  San  Diego 482  Mar.  14  Nov.  19 

Campo,  San  Diego 2543  June  17  Sept.  17 


Mountain  Regions 

vSisson,  Siskiyou  .......................  3555 

Cedarville,  Modoc  ....................  4675 

Susanville,  Lassen  ....................  4195 

Laporte,  Plumas  ......................  5000 

Greenville,  Plumas  ....................  3600 

Boca,  Nevada  ........................  5531 

Summerdale,  Mariposa  ................  5270 

Lick  Observatory,  Santa  Clara  .........  4209 

Tehachapi,  Kern  ......................  3964 

Cuyamaca,  San  Diego  .................  4543 


July  6 

June  24 

June  22 

July  6 

June  11 

May  1 

June  15 

May  25 

Apr.  11 

July  1  1 


Sept.  13 

Aug.  30 

Sept.  8 

Sept.  6 

Aug.  20 

Oct.  2 

Sept.  25 

Oct.  2 

Nov.  20 

Sept.  5 


FROST    ENDURANCE  119 

The  general  reader,  after  studying  the  foregoing  data,  may 
conclude  that  in  nearly  all  the  valley  districts  of  California  there  is 
little  difference  in  the  length  of  the  absolute  frost-free  period;  also 
that  elevation  influences  temperature  similarly  in  all  parts  of  the 
State.  At  elevations  below  1500  feet,  which  is  the  point  at  which 
foothills  begin  to  shade  into  mountains,  there  are  about  two-thirds 
of  the  whole  year  in  which  even  the  tenderest  vegetation  may  be 
considered  practically  safe  from  injury  from  frost,  and  particular 
situations  in  which  the  frost-free  period  is  even  longer.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  are  mountain  valleys,  with  good  soil  and  sunshine 
and  ample  total  heat  for  vegetables,  in  which  tender  plants  must 
be  always  protected,  because  frost  may  occur  every  month  in  the 
year. 

The  Endurance  of  Different  Vegetables. — The  degree  of  cold 
which  plants  will  survive  depends  upon  several  considerations  and 
conditions,  involving  state  of  air,  moisture  and  of  the  plant  itself, 
which  makes  it  impossible  to  fix  the  injury  point  of  a  plant  definitely. 
There  is,  however,  practical  value  in  the  following  compilation 
made  from  reports  by  Pacific  Coast  growers  as  to  the  effect  of  our 
style  of  low  temperatures,  the  temperatures  being  given  as  nearly 
as  possible  those  in  contact  with  the  plant  itself : 


TEMPERATURE    AT    WHICH    CERTAIN    PLANTS    ARE    LIABLE    TO    RECEIVE 
INJURY  FROM  FROSTS. 

Plant         Degrees  Fahrenheit  Plant             Degrees  Fahrenheit 

Asparagus 29  Beans 31 

Cantaloupes 32  Celery 28 

Cucumbers 32  Onions 28 

Potatoes 30       „     Sweet  Potatoes 31 

Spinach 21  Squash 31 

Turnips 26  Watermelons 31 

Not  Always  Freezing  at  32  Degrees. — In  connection  with  the 
endurance  of  vegetables,  it  should  be  noted  that  in  parts  of  Cali- 
fornia freezing  effects  are  not  produced  by  a  temperature  of  32 
degrees.  This  is  in  accordance  with  a  deduction  from  wide  studies 
of  frost  occurrence  by  P.  C.  Day,  Chief  of  Climatological  Division  of 
the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  as  follows :  "Cool  nights  are  a  feature 
of  all  arid  regions,  due  to  intense  radiation  made  possible  by  the 
generally  clear  skies  and  lack  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere.  As  a 
result  of  these  conditions  the  temperature  in  the  early  morning 


120  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES 

hours  may  frequently  reach  the  freezing  point,  but  its  continuance 
may  not  be  for  a  length  of  time  sufficient  to  injure  the  plant 
structure;  in  fact,  owing  to  the  dryness  of  the  air,  frost  does  not 
always  form  with  a  temperature  of  32  degrees  or  even  several 
degrees  lower,  and  in  addition  plant  life  subjected  to  such  variations 
in  temperature  becomes  more  hardy  and  lower  temperatures  are 
required  to  cause  serious  injury.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  more 
humid  regions  the  radiation  at  night  is  less  rapid,  the  nights  as  a 
rule  are  not  so  markedly  cold,  plant  life  is  less  hardy,  frost  forms 
readily  at  the  freezing  point,  the  same  degree  of  cold  is  often  pro- 
tracted over  much  longer  periods  of  time,  and  vegetation  is  there- 
fore more  seriously  affected."  * 


SUCCESSIONS    AND    ROTATIONS    IN    CALIFORNIA    GARDENS. 

Naturally,  an  all-the-year  growing  season  suggests  constant 
use  of  the  ground  and  the  possibility  of  turning  the  soil  over  several 
times  in  the  course  of  the  year.  This  can  be  done  by  quick  revolu- 
tion, like  the  following : 

Where  water  is  handy  two,  three,  or  even  four  crops  can  be  grown  on 
the  same  ground  in  the  year.  Start  April  1  and  sow  the  plot  to  lettuce,  and 
with  proper  cultivation  it  will  mature  in  two  months.  Resow  with  turnip- 
radish,  which  is  a  good  summer  variety.  These  will  be  fit  to  use  in  three 
weeks,  or  by  the  first  week  of  July,  when  the  ground  will  be  ready  for  late 
cucumbers  which  will  occupy  the  ground  until  the  first  frost,  or  till  the 
nights  become  too  cold  for  them  to  fruit.  Now  plant  to  carrots,  beets,  or 
onion  sets,  and  any  of  them  will  be  ready  for  use  in  February  or  March. 
Here  we  have  four  crops  within  the  twelve  months,  and  no  two  of  them 
occupying  the  ground  at  the  same  time.  There  are  other  combinations  that 
would  do  as  well. 

Though  this  rapid  work  is  quite  feasible,  as  shown,  and  many 
plants  can  enter  into  such  combinations,  the  two  crop  plan  will 
probably  be  as  fast  movement  as  most  farm  gardeners  will  keep 
up  with,  and  that  consists  in  fall  sowing  of  hardy  vegetables  for 
winter  and  spring  use,  followed  by  spring  planting  of  tender  vege- 
tables for  summer  and  fall  use.  Occasionally  there  will  be  intervals 
in  this  rotation  for  a  third  or  catch  crop  of  lettuce,  radish,  etc.,  which 
takes  a  very  short  time.  This  will  be  a  vast  improvement  on  the 
present  popular  conception  of  gardening  possibilities,  and  if  the 


*Frost  Data  of  the  United  States  Bulletin  V,  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  1911. 


FAMILY    GARDEN    PROGRAM  121 

hint  of  a  fall  crop  of  tender  vegetables  like  melons,  beans,  corn, 
etc.,  planted  in  July  to  come  on  fast  in  the  heat,  followed  by  fall 
planting  of  the  hardy  list  for  winter  use,  these  two  crops  will  be 
gained  before  the  outbreak  of  the  usual  "garden  fever,"  which 
rallies  all  garden  forces  in  February  and  March.  The  agencies  to 
demonstrate  this  broader  conception  of  our  gardening  possibilities 
are  Will  and  Work  and  Water,  to  which  allusion  has  been  made  in 
a  previous  chapter. 

Family  Garden  Programmes. — It  will  surprise  any  one  who 
carries  out  rapid  succession  of  plantings  to  see  how  much  desirable 
food  can  be  secured  from  a  very  small  area.  An  enthusiastic 
gardener  at  Lakeside,  San  Diego  county,  reported  that  his  garden 
of  fifty  feet  square  supplied  enough  vegetables,  excepting  potatoes, 
for  a  large  family,  and  required  less  than  half  a  day's  attention 
during  a  week.  He  grew  the  following  vegetables,  planting  each 
month  in  the  year  as  follows : 

January — After  the  20th,   turnips,   cabbage   seed,  carrots,  lettuce,  peas. 

February — Radishes,  beets,   salsify,   spinach,  onion   seed  or  sets. 

March — Potatoes  (in  field),  turnips,  cabbage,  lettuce,  peas,  cabbage 
plants. 

April — Cucumbers,  watermelons,  muskmelons,  squashes,  tomato  plants, 
radishes,  beets,  salsify,  corn,  beans,  sweet  potatoes,  cabbage  seed. 

May — Carrots,  lettuce,  peas,  onion  seed  or  sets. 

June — Radishes,  beets,  beans,  corn,  salsify,  cabbage  plants. 

July — Carrots,  lettuce,  cabbage  seed. 

August — Potatoes   (in  field),  corn,  beans,  radishes. 

September — Cabbage  plants,  peas,  turnips,  salsify,  and  carrots. 

October — Beets,  beans,  onion  sets,  lettuce. 

November — Turnips,  spinach,  salsify. 

December — Winter  radishes,  peas,  lettuce. 

He  has  the  advantage  of  a  very  short  period  of  frosts,  and 
light  ones  at  that.  He  plants  in  rows  eighteen  inches  apart,  irri- 
gates his  garden  every  ten  days  in  trenches  and  cultivates  twice  a 
week.  In  favorable  seasons  he  has  natural  moisture  from  Novem- 
ber to  April  or  May.  If  the  rainfall  is  light  he  cultivates  twice  a 
week. 

Another  arrangement  for  succession  is  that  practiced  by  a 
vineyardist  in  the  Santa  Cruz  mountains,  who  grows  vegetables  in 
his  vineyard.  He  plows  one  furrow  in  the  center,  between  the  vines, 
manured  in  the  furrow  and  covered  with  a  furrow  plowed  each 
side.  The  bed  thus  formed  is  planted  in  November  with  a  row, 


122  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

thickly  sown,  of  American  Wonder  Peas,  covered  with  the  rake, 
making  a  smooth  place  where,  about  four  inches  from  the  peas,  are 
planted  cabbage,  Chinese  Rose  Winter  radishes,  onions,  lettuce 
and  turnip  seed,  mixed.  Other  sowings,  adding  carrots,  beans,  etc., 
are  made,  according  to  the  weather,  until  May.  In  February  he 
gathers  radishes  and  lettuce ;  in  March,  peas.  He  sells  or  gives 
away  bushels  of  lettuce  and  radishes,  and  has  enough  to  supply 
a  big  family  from  March  1  to  July.  As  late  as  November  he  gathers 
beets,  carrots,  turnips  and  string  beans.  He  has  the  advantage  of  a 
larger  winter  rainfall,  and  conserves  moisture  by  cultivating  be- 
tween the  rows  every  week  in  dry  weather. 


CHAPTER    XL 
PROPAGATION. 

From  what  has  been  said  of  the  favoring  conditions  in  Cali- 
fornia for  open  air  work  and  freedom  from  low  temperatures,  it 
may  be  rightly  inferred  that  the  higher  arts  of  propagation  involv- 
ing the  use  of  acres  of  glass  and  the  most  approved  heating  devices, 
are  not  to  be  found  in  California.  The  forcing  of  vegetables  which 
is  now  commanding  such  wide  effort  and  investment  at  the  east 
is  only  undertaken  to  a  limited  extent,  and  although  it  is  increasing 
with  our  advance  in  population  and  wealth,  it  will  always  be  men- 
aced by  the  open  air  work,  both  in  average  situations  and  in  frostless 
localities  which  are,  at  present,  only  worked  up  to  a  fraction  of  their 
capacity.  Forcing  is,  however,  accomplished  with  much  less  ex- 
pensive structures  and  heating  arrangements  than  at  the  east, 
because  only  slight  drops  in  temperature  are  to  be  overcome.  We 
have  also  a  decided  advantage  in  the  large  percentage  of  winter 
sunshine.  Forcing  is,  therefore,  relatively  cheaper  than  in  wintry 
regions  and  there  may  be,  ere  long,  an  important  industry.  Of 
course  the  same  general  conditions  which  discourage  forcing  with 
us  also  make  elaborate  and  expensive  arrangements  for  growing 
tender  plants  for  subsequent  planting  out,  unnecessary.  Not  only 
do  hot-beds  of  the  scantiest  construction  and  covering  answer  local 
purposes,  but  even  their  heating  materials  have  to  be  toned  down 
by  more  slowly  fermenting  intermixtures  and  by  freer  entrance  of 
air,  lest  the  growths  be  over-forced.  Often,  as  will  be  described 
presently,  a  little  bottom  heat,  without  close  covering  above,  is  all 
that  conditions  require  to  bring  forward  and  protect  tender  seed- 
lings until  it  is  safe  for  them  to  take  their  chances  under  kind  skies. 

TESTING   SEED   BEFORE   PLANTING. 

One  should  know  the  viability  of  seed  before  risking  his  labor 
upon  it.  The  following  is  a  current  account  of  a  simple  test  suited 
to  the  needs  of  amateurs : 

(123) 


124  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

Take  two  dinner  plates  and  pieces  of  cotton  flannel.  Boil  them  both  to 
destroy  any  mold  spores  or  fungi  they  may  contain.  Upon  an  up-turned  plate 
place  a  layer  of  moistened  cotton  flannel.  On  this  lay  the  seeds  to  be  tested, 
of  the  small  seed  say  a  hundred,  and  half  the  number  of  large  seeds  will  do. 
Over  this  place  another  moistened  strip  and  cover  with  a  similar  plate.  If 
more  than  one  variety  of  seed  is  to  be  tested  at  one  time  another  strip  may 
be  laid  on  top  of  the  first  set,  the  seed  placed  and  covered  as  before,  using  two 
pieces  of  cloth  for  each  variety.  This  gives  the  seed  an  aerated  and  more  or 
less  sterilized  germinating  bed.  Set  the  plate  in  a  somewhat  darkened  place 
where  temperature  of  70  to  80  degrees  F.  during  the  day  and,  if  necessary, 
less  than  50  degrees  F.  during  the  night,  may  be  maintained.  The  length  of 
time  required  for  germination  will  depend  largely  upon  the  nature  of  the 
seeds,  from  six  to  ten  days  usually  being  required.  Where  only  a  small  per- 
centage of  the  seed  fails  to  germinate  the  grower  may  provide  aganist  a 
poor  stand  with  a  heavier  seeding.  Where  the  prcentage  germinating  is  small 
it  is  usually  desirable  to  try  for  a  better  lot  of  seed  before  planting. 


GROWTH   FROM   SEED  IN  OPEN   GROUND. 

Adequate  heat  and  moisture  are  essential  to  germination  and 
subsequent  growth.  The  preceding  chapter  has  shown  at  what 
times  these  factors  are  present  in  California  soil,  either  by  nature 
or  artifice  of  the  planter.  Heat  is  almost  always  adequate  for  the 
germination  of  the  seed  in  common  vegetables,  in  well-drained 
surface  soil  in  the  California  valley  regions.  Even  in  our  frosty 
weather,  the  day  temperature  of  the  soil  is  adequate  for  germination 
except,  perhaps,  during  the  colder  storms  and  seldom  does  our 
rain  have  too  low  a  temperature.  Even  in  this  it  is  not  so  much 
the  matter  of  germination  as  of  conditions  inhospitable  to  the 
subsequent  growth  of  the  germs.  It  makes  little  practical  differ- 
ence, perhaps,  whether  the  seed  is  killed  or  the  germ  perishes  after 
starting.  But  the  death  of  either  seed  or  germ  is  more  often  due  to 
moisture  lack  or  excess,  than  to  temperature  conditions.  For  this 
reason  a  sowing  may  go  for  naught  if  seeding  is  done  in  the  fall 
without  thorough  moistening  of  the  soil  by  irrigation  or  rainfall, 
or  the  same  disappointment  may  follow  sowing  even  seed  of  hardy 
plants  in  certain  localities  in  December  and  January  in  years  of 
heavy  rainfall.  For  these  reasons  it  is  all-important  that  the  vege- 
table grower  should  carefully  observe  his  local  conditions  of  soil 
heat  and  moisture  and  arrive  at  proper  deductions  from  his  own 
experience  as  to  what  acts  he  should  perform  under  his  ruling  local 
conditions  and  the  peculiar  phases  of  the  weather  of  the  particular 
year  in  which  he  is  acting.  And  then  a  vegetable  grower,  in  garden 


DEPTH    OF    COVERING  125 

practice,  which  involves  succession  of  small  areas,  must  be  enter- 
prisingly venturesome.  He  must  take  some  chances  of  losing  a 
sowing  or  planting  and  of  renewing  it,  and  he  should  always  keep 
adequate  supplies  of  seeds  or  seedlings  at  hand.  It  is  a  great  deal  bet- 
ter to  lose  a  sowing  than  to  set  up  some  arbitrary  dead-sure  date  for 
sowing;  for  with  such  a  policy  he  will  never  have  anything  early, 
and  perhaps  never  anything  profitable.  Field  work  for  staple  vege- 
tables is  another  proposition,  but  field  work  for  shipment  of  early 
stuff  is  always  attended  by  some  risk,  for  the  grower  has  to  venture 
everything  on  doing  the  best  he  can  to  be  safe  and  early,  but  to  be 
early  at  any  rate. 

Although  this  is  true  it  must  be  always  remembered  that  noth- 
ing is  gained  in  working  the  soil  or  sowing  the  seed  when  the  soil 
is  not  in  condition  to  work  well.  Some  results  of  this  bad  practice 
have  been  mentioned  in  other  connections  and  they  are  deplorable, 
especially  in  the  heavier  soils.  It  is  especially  an  error  of  judgment 
in  seed  sowing  to  suppose  that  any  time  can  be  gained  by  sowing 
early  upon  an  unfit  seed  bed.  Even  if  a  fair  stand  should  be  secured 
there  will  be  handicaps  upon  the  plants  all  through  their  course, 
and  a  somewhat  later  planting  with  the  soil  in  good  condition  will 
probably  surpass  them  both  in  .time  and  quality. 

There  is  often  advantage  in  soaking  seed  overnight  in  tepid 
water.  The  lighter  the  soil  and  the  later  the  sowing  the  greater 
benefit  will  accrue  from  this  method  of  hastening  germination. 
When  the  wet  seed  is  difficult  to  handle,  or  when  it  is  to  be  used 
with  a  seed-drill,  sift  some  fine  ashes  over  the  seed.  This  will  take 
up  the  surface  moisture  and  allow  them  to  run  through  the  drill 
easily. 

Arranging  Moisture  Conditions  for  Germination. — In  addition 
to  the  greater  undertakings  described  in  the  chapters  on  irrigation 
and  drainage,  there  are  little  acts  which  are  of  the  utmost  import- 
ance in  securing  moisture  conditions  favorable  to  germination  and 
growth. 

First:  Seed  covering.  Darkness  is  favorable  to  germination 
of  most  seeds,  but  covering  is  primarily  for  two  other  purposes. 
One  is  to  assist  the  seedling  in  its  anchorage  and  root  penetration, 
but  the  more  important  is  to  insure  it  moisture.  There  can  be  no 
positive  rule  for  depth  of  sowing.  Five  times  the  diameter  of  the 
seed  might  do  at  the  best  of  the  season  in  the  best  garden  soil,  but 
this  depth  would  be  too  great  for  some  seeds  in  some  soils  in  the 


126  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

rainy  season,  and  far  too  shallow  for  the  same  seed  and  soil  in  the 
dry  season.  On  all  soils  the  rule  must  be  shallow  sowing,  if  large 
rainfall  is  characteristic  of  the  region ;  deep  sowing  if  scant  rainfall 
is  to  be  expected ;  shallow  sowing  early  in  the  rainy  season ;  deep 
sowing  near  its  close ;  shallow  sowing  on  the  heavier  soils ;  deep 
sowing  on  the  lighter  soils.  Late  in  the  season  the  surface  layer 
which  is  air  dried  in  spite  of  stirring,  does  not  count  as  depth  at  all. 
It  must  be  brushed  aside  and  the  seed  sown  in  the  moist  layer 
beneath  whether  the  sowing  is  done  by  hand  or  with  a  seed  drill. 
Later  cultivation  will  level  the  soil  back  around  the  plant  stem  to 
assist  in  retaining  moisture  below.  Conforming  to  this  condition, 
the  larger  summer-sown  seeds  should  be  sown  in  the  light  soil  of 
the  interior  valleys  at  four  to  six  inches  deep — twice  or  three  times 
the  depth  prescribed  for  the  seed  in  humid  climates  or  in  the  humid 
side  of  our  own  climate.  Seeds  sown  in  hills  can  stand  deep  plant- 
ing better  than  when  sown  singly,  as  they  seem  to  join  their  strength 
in  uplifting  the  weight  of  soil  above  them. 

Second :  Soil  firming.  This  is  another  act  which  aids  the  seed 
in  other  ways,  but  is  primarily  for  moisture  furnishing.  A  seed 
thrown  into  a  loose  surface  layer  may  germinate  and  perish  for 
lack  of  moisture  and  soil-contact  or  it  may  lie  unquickened  until  a 
footstep  or  a  shower  compacts  the  earth  about  it.  It  may  thus  lie 
half  a  year  in  California.  Many  amateurs  are  much  too  kind  in 
their  intent  and  too  cruel  in  their  method,  by  making  the  surface  as 
loose  as  possible  and  then  gently  placing  the  seed  in  the  loose  layer. 
It  is  better  to  jump  on  it  with  both  feet.  Whether  it  be  done  by 
direct  tramping  or  by  tramping  a  narrow  board  placed  upon  the 
sown  row,  or  tamped  down  with  a  block  with  a  long  handle,  or  by 
using  the  garden  or  field  roller,  or  by  flat  slaps  with  the  back  of  the 
planting  hoe,  it  matters  not;  it  is  only  essential  that  the  firming  of 
the  inclosing  layer  should  be  given  unless  immediate  water  settling 
of  the  ground  is  anticipated.  And  this  firming  is  conditioned  in 
degree  upon  soil  and  season  just  as  depth  of  covering  is,  viz. :  light 
soil  or  late  in  season,  heaviest  firming;  heavier  soil  or  early  in 
season,  lighter  firming.  The  reason  for  firming  is  the  restoration 
of  capillarity  to  the  loose  layer,  consequently  adequate  moisture 
supply  to  the  germinating  seed.  But  when  this  capillarity  has  served 
its  purpose  and  the  root  has  penetrated  the  permanently  moist  layers 
below,  this  capillarity  must  be  destroyed  by  cultivation  and  the 
surface  layer  again  loosened  so  that  it  will  not  transmit  moisture. 


WATER    IN    SEED    SOWING  127 

Therefore,  as  prescribed  in  an  earlier  chapter  the  hoe  or  cultivator 
must  be  started  as  soon  as  the  young  plants  can  be  seen,  and  in  some 
larger  seeds  where  the  firmed  layer  has  been  crusted  by  a  shower 
a  light  harrowing  or  raking  may  be  desirable  to  release  the  -shoots 
from  the  too  compact  covering  which  has  come  over  them. 

Third:  Soil  opening.  The  converse  of  firming  the  soil  about 
the  seed  is  drying  of  the  surface  soil  when  unexpectedly  heavy 
rains  have  come  and  the  water  does  not  percolate  rapidly  enough 
to  bring  the  surface  layer  into  good  condition  for  growth.  In  such 
an  event  seed  can  often  be  saved  from  rotting  by  the  light  raking 
or  harrowing  or  cutting  with  a  disc,  to  allow  the  air  to  assist  drain- 
age in  relieving  the  surface  layer  of  its  excess.  The  wisdom  of  this 
course  is  always  conditioned  upon  the  character  of  the  soil.  A 
sticky  soil  would  be  more  harmed  than  the  seed  would  be  helped 
by  it. 

Fourth :  Mulching.  The  use  of  a  light  mulch  of  chaff  or  cor- 
ral-scrapings or  rotten  straw  or  other  fine,  loose  material  is  of  value 
in  garden  practice  if  it  does  not  occasion  too  great  cost  or  labor  to 
procure  or  prepare  it.  The  larger  the  seed  the  thicker  the  layer 
may  safely  be,  and  with  the  mulch,  shallower  planting,  and  prob- 
ably quicker  germination,  is  possible.  The  mulch  lessens  evapora- 
tion from  the  surface  and  thus  gives  the  seed  a  surer  supply;  it 
also  prevents  puddling  of  the  soil  surface  by  pelting  rain  drops  and 
keeps  the  particles  both  moist  and  loose  for  the  thrust  of  the  shoot. 
A  mulch  also  makes  it  much  safer  to  sprinkle  the  bed  if  rains  delay. 
In  garden  practice  it  can  hardly  be  too  highly  commended.  On 
heavy  soils  sawdust  or  sand  can  be  used  for  this  purpose  if  they  are 
the  most  available  materials. 

Fifth :  Irrigation.  Starting  seeds  by  irrigation  on  soil  that 
has  good  capillarity  and  lateral  percolation  (or  "seeps  well"  as 
the  common  phrase  is)  releases  one  from  several  of  the  injunctions 
just  laid  down.  The  covering  should  be  shallow,  as  the  moisture 
will  rise  to  the  surface ;  no  firming  needs  to  be  done,  for  the  water 
will  settle  the  soil,  and  when  the  moisture  is  ample,  stopping  the 
supply  will  quickly  allow  the  escape  of  the  surplus.  It  may  some- 
times be  desirable  to  use  a  light  mulch  to  protect  the  surface  from 
baking  and  give  the  seedlings  a  few  days'  more  growth  before  it  is 
necessary  to  stir  the  surface.  Seed  starting  in  this  way  with  the 
raised  beds  and  permanent  ditches  and  the  ridge  irrigation  system, 
all  of  which  have  been  described  in  the  chapter  on  irrigation,  is 


128  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

very  satisfactory.  The  application  of  it  to  various  vegetables  will 
be  given  in  the  treatment  of  each.  Where  the  seeds  are  to  be 
started  by  the  furrow  system  on  land  that  will  draw  water  well 
laterally,  the  seed  can  be  sown  in  shallow  trenches,  leaving  the 
seeds  barely  covered.  Then  irrigate  by  turning  water  into  shallow 
irrigation  trenches  made  some  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  apart.  Let 
the  water  soak  through  and  completely  moisten  the  surface  until 
it  has  spread  across  all  the  seed  trenches,  and  until  the  little  clods 
are  broken  down  and  dissolved.  The  seeds  are  thus  well  covered 
and  enabled  to  sprout  and  come  up  before  the  soil  is  dried  out. 
Subsequent  cultivation  levels  the  ground,  giving  the  seedlings  suf- 
ficient depth  of  covering  and  new  furrows  are  plowed  for  later 
irrigations.  This  is  only  one  of  many  ways  by  which  seeds  can  be 
started  by  irrigation. 

GROWTH   FROM    SEED   UNDER   COVER. 

This  broad  title  is  used  to  include  about  all  that?  is  done  in 
California  except  under  the  sky  cover.  In  the  chapters  on  the  dif- 
ferent vegetables,  which  will  follow,  there  will  be  mentioned  special 
propagating  methods  employed  with  each,  but  in  this  place  a  few 
protecting  and  promoting  arrangements  will  be  described  for  the 
benefit  of  beginners  in  garden  work. 

Seed  Boxes. — Seed  boxes  are  the  simplest  arrangement  for 
starting  seedlings  for  subsequent  planting  out  and  in  most  amateur 
gardening  in  this  climate  they  will  comprise  about  all  that  is  neces- 
sary in  the  way  of  construction,  because,  as  will  be  seen  later,  it  is 
very  easy  to  give  them  a  little  bottom  heat  if  the  grower  desires,  but 
they  can  be  largely  used  without  any.  The  chief  advantages  of 
starting  seedlings  in  boxes  instead  of  the  open  ground  are  the  ease 
with  which  the  seed  boxes  can  be  carried  under  protection  from  cold, 
beating  rains  or  frosts,  or  protected  from  hot,  drying  winds  or  too 
intense  sun  heat,  and  the  convenience  with  which  moisture  condi- 
tions can  be  regulated  by  covering  and  light  sprinkling. 

There  are  no  particular  dimensions  to  be  observed  in  making 
seed  boxes,  except  that  they  should  not  be  too  large  to  be  easily 
lifted  and  carried  with  their  contents.  The  cases  which  enclose 
two  five-gallon  cans  of  coal  oil,  sawn  in  two  lengthwise  so  as  to 
make  two  wide,  shallow  boxes,  serve  an  excellent  purpose.  It  is 
more  convenient  to  have  all  the  boxes  of  the  same  size  than  to  use 


THE    COLD   FRAME  129 

odd  sizes,  in  case  it  may  be  desired  to  group  the  boxes  in  a  hot-bed 
or  otherwise  for  heat  and  covering.  Be  sure  that  the  bottom  has 
ample  openings  for  drainage — either  cracks  or  bored  holes.  The 
soil-layer  in  the  boxes  should  not  exceed  three  inches  in  depth.  In 
ordinary  amateur  practice  a  good  soil  for  these  boxes  can  be  made 
by  taking  good  rich  garden  soil  as  a  basis.  Add  sand  and,  if  pos- 
sible, the  light  mold  from  under  an  old  straw  stack,  leaf  mold, 
finely  powdered  rotted  manure,  or  something  similar,  until  you  have 
a  rich,  friable  soil.  No  definite  rule  can  be  given  for  mixing,  except 
that  the  prepared  soil  should  hold  moisture  well,  have  no  tendency 
to  cake,  and  never  crack  in  the  sun. 

Fill  the  boxes,  and,  with  a  small  board,  press  the  soil  closely 
and  evenly,  so  that  it  will  retain  moisture.  The  seeds  should  then 
be  sown  quickly  and  evenly  over  the  surface  or  in  lines,  and  pressed 
down  by  a  smooth  board  into  the  soil,  so  that  the  seed,  be  it  large 
or  small,  will  form  a  level  surface  with  the  soil.  This  being  done, 
the  same  prepared  soil  should  be  sifted  evenly  over  the  top,  just 
enough  to  cover  the  seed.  Again  press  this  layer  of  soil  which  has 
covered  the  seeds  gently  with  the  smooth  board. 

It  is  a  great  help  to  the  seed  to  have  the  surface  again  covered 
with  a  light  material  that  would  hold  moisture,  such  as  dry  moss, 
or  powdered  vegetable  matter  of  any  kind  which  is  light  and  will 
hold  moisture.  This  should  be  rubbed  through  the  sieve  over  the 
seed  boxes,  just  thick  enough  to  cover  the  soil  (not  more  than  one- 
sixteenth  of  an  inch).  It  is  very  beneficial  in  the  germination  of 
the  seed,  as  with  such  a  top-dressing  one  watering  with  a  fine  rose 
watering-pot  will  keep  the  soil  moist  enough  usually  until  the  seeds 
come  up.  It  is  a  great  mistake  to  be  continually  watering  such 
after  they  have  been  sown.  The  rule  in  all  these  things  is  never  to 
water  until  the  surface  indicates  that  the  soil  is  dry. 

A  Cold  Frame. — The  arrangement  which  comes  next  to  the 
seed  box  in  simplicity  is  the  cold  frame.  It  is  simply  for  the  pur- 
pose of  concentrating  sun  heat  and  protection  from  low  tempera- 
tures and  heavy  rain  storms.  It  is  a  convenient  receptacle  for  the 
seed  boxes  already  described,  or  it  may  be  put  over  seeds  sown  in 
the  ground — the  soil  being  prepared  to  receive  the  seed  in  about  the 
same  way  already  described  for  filling  the  boxes.  The  frame  is 
made  of  inch  boards,  the  front  board  about  twelve  inches  wide,  the 
back  board  or  boards  eighteen  inches  wide  and  the  sides  sloping 
from  eighteen  to  twelve  inches  to  meet  the  widths  of  the  front  and 


130  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES 

back  boards.  The  frame  is  usually  made  three  feet  from  front  to 
rear  (for  convenience  in  working  from  the  front,  but  can  be  of  any 
length  desired).  This  frame  is  covered  with  glazed  sash  or  cloth 
frames  or  lath  frames  or  first  one  and  then  another,  according  to 
'the  amount  of  protection  and  heat  or  of  shade  desirable.  The  ar- 
rangement is  called  a  "cold  frame"  because  no  provision  is  made  for 
bottom-heat.  There  are  many  modifications  of  the  cold  frame ;  lath 
or  slat  houses  or  lath  covers  for  beds  with  raised  edging  boards, 
etc.,  etc.,  are  all  on  the  cold  frame  principle,  and  in  this  climate, 
where  so  little  increment  of  heat  is  required  and  where  shade  is 
often  desirable,  the  arrangement  serves  an  excellent  purpose. 

The  Hot-bed. — The  hot-bed  consists  of  a  box  like  that  de- 
scribed for  a  cold  frame  placed  above  a  mass  of  fermenting  manure 
which  supplies  bottom  heat.  The  old  regulation  style  of  hot-bed 
was  made  by  digging  out  a  pit  the  size  of  the  frame,  throwing  out 
the  soil  to  a  depth  of  eighteen  inches  or  two  feet.  Fill  in  the  exca- 
vation with  a  foot  depth  of  fresh  horse  manure  mixed  with  straw 
as  it  comes  from  a  stable  where  the  animals  are  well  bedded  with 
straw.  Tread  the  manure  down  firmly ;  put  on  the  frame  and  cover 
the  manure  with  eight  to  ten  inches  of  good  light  and  rich  sandy 
loam  that  will  not  bake  or  crust  over  when  sprinkled  with  water. 
Bank  up  the  outside  of  the  frame  with  the  same  kind  of  manure 
used  inside,  and  cover  with  window  sashes  of  the  proper  length  to 
reach  across  the  bed  and  rest  on  the  sides.  The  sashes  should  not 
be  too  wide  as  it  is  desirable  to  uncover  part  of  the  bed  at  a  time. 
As  soon  as  the  manure  begins  to  ferment  and  heat  the  bed  is  ready 
for  use.  Sow  seeds  in  rows  from  front  to  back  of  the  bed,  and 
germination  will  be  very  rapid.  On  warm  days  the  cover  should 
be  lifted  a  little  or  partially  or  wholly  removed,  according  to  the 
heat  of  the  day  and  the  activity  of  the  bottom  heat  in  the  bed. 
Water  freely  with  water  from  which  the  chill  has  been  removed. 

This  old  style  of  hot-bed  is  contrived  to  freely  employ  the  heat 
of  the  fermenting  manure  and  to  push  plants  during  zero  tempera- 
tures in  the  outer  air.  Of  course,  where  winter  temperatures  but 
rarely  fall  to  the  freezing  point,  and  where  the  winter  day  heat  often 
runs  at  shirt  sleeves  and  sun-bonnet  degrees,  such  a  hot-bed  is  as 
excessive  in  the  garden  as  a  feather-bed  is  in  the  house.  For  these 
reasons,  the  horse  manure  is  made  less  active  by  considerable  ad- 
mixture of  chaff  or  dried  leaves  or  other  mollients.  This  mixture 
is  placed  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  in  a  place  protected  from  cold 


THE    HOT    BOX 


131 


winds,  and  is  properly  mixed  and  packed  down  into  a  compact,  flat 
pile,  somewhat  larger  than  the  frame,  which  is  placed  upon  the  top 
of  it  and  the  same  material  is  drawn  up  around  the  outside  of  the 
ends  and  sides  of  the  frame.  Inside  the  frame  the  soil  is  placed 
just  as  described  for  the  hot-bed  with  a  pit.  This  raised,  instead 
of  depressed,  hot-bed  is  easier  to  make  and  it  has  other  advantages 
for  this  climate.  It  is  not  likely  to  have  its  pit  flooded  and  the  heat 
choked  off  by  rain  water  just  at  the  time  when  its  action  is  desired. 
It  is  -also  easier  to  prevent  excessive  heat  because  it  allows  better 
opportunities  for  radiation.  But  even  with  this  the  plants  have  to 
be  very  carefully  watched  and  air  freely  given  or  they  will  become 
leggy  and  weak  from  too  great  forcing-heat.  These  local  conditions 
have  also  given  rise  to  other  modifications  of  hot-bed  arrangements 
which  are  excellent  for  this  climate.  One  is  shown  in  an  adjacent 
engraving.  By  making  the  ends  of  the  hot-bed  with  two  pieces,  the 
upper  hinged  to  the  lower,  it  is  possible  to  open  the  ends  easily 
either  to  avoid  end-shade  on  the  plants  or  to  admit  air  and  lower 
the  temperature  as  may  be  desirable. 


An  Easily  Made  Hot-box 


A  Horticultural  Hot-box. — Mr.  Ira  W.  Adams,  of  Potter  Val- 
ley, who  has  already  been  mentioned  as  a  grower  of  great  ingenuity 
and  insight,  has  devised  a  sort  of  automatic  arrangement  which 
changes  from  a  hot-bed  to  a  cold  frame  about  the  time  the  plants 
are  ready  to  go  from  forcing  to  hardening  off.  He  gives  this  de- 
scription of  it : 

I  take  a  dry  goods  box,  three  or  four  feet  long,  two  feet  wide  and  two 
feet  or  more  in  depth.  This  is  about  as  small  as  it  should  be ;  a  much  larger 
one  can  be  used,  if  necessary.  Into  this  I  put  fresh  horse  manure,  and  straw 
that  has  been  used  for  bedding,  and  tramp  it  down  occasionally  as  solid  as 


132  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

possible,  until  it  is  within  four  inches  from  the  top.  Over  this  I  scatter  a 
little  clean  straw.  I  then  use  small  boxes,  three  inches  deep,  and  fill  them 
nearly  full  with  nicely  prepared  soil,  and,  after  sowing  my  seed  place  each 
box  on  the  warm  bed  and  cover  each  one  with  a  pane  of  glass,  in  order  to 
retain  moisture.  It  is  necessary  to  remove  the  glass  occasionally,  for  the 
purpose  of  admitting  fresh  air.  The  main  bed  will  soon  commence  to  heat, 
as  well  as  the  earth  in  the  box.  Great  care  must  now  be  taken  for  a  few 
days,  otherwise  the  contents  of  the  boxes  might  become  too  warm,  which 
would  cause  the  young  plants  to  grow  tall  and  spindling,  thereby  rendering 
them  almost  worthless.  This  can  be  easily  obviated  by  lifting  the  boxes  and 
placing  them  under  an  inch  board,  or  a  few  bricks.  On  a  cold  night  vary  the 
boards  or  bricks  as  occasion  may  require.  In  a  tew  days  your  plants  will 
be  up  nicely,  the  heat  of  the  bed  will  gradually  grow  less,  and  the  plants 
will  naturally  favor  themselves  to  the  change.  You  will  soon  have  what  is 
termed  a  "cold  frame,"  and  your  plants  will  grow  strong  and  stocky,  pro- 
viding care  is  taken  to  cover  them  during  severe  storms,  as  well  as  in  cold 
days  and  nights.  When  they  are  yet  small,  and  commence  to  crowd  each 
other  too  much,  transplant  them  to  an  open,  sheltered,  raised  bed  where 
they  can  be  cared  for  until  ready  to  set  out  in  permanent  beds  or  rows. 

A  Warm  Heap. — Another  of  Mr.  Adams'  arrangements  to 
give  his  seed  boxes  just  as  little  heat  as  suits  the  purpose  consists 
is  simply  throwing  up  a  heap  of  fresh  horse  manure,  etc.,  under  an 
old  shed,  and  placing  the  seed-boxes  on  top  of  the  heap.  Great  care 
must  be  taken  for  some  days  at  least,  as  it  becomes  necessary  to 
raise  the  boxes  sometimes  by  placing  them  on  a  piece  of  board  or 
bricks  or  to  press  them  down  a  little  into  the  heap,  owing  altogether 
to  the  amount  of  heat  generated.  A  little  too  much  is  worse  than 
not  quite  enough.  After  the  plants  get  a  few  inches  high  they  can 
be  transplanted  into  open  beds  somewhat  sheltered  from  the  north 
winds,  where  they  can  remain  until  the  spring  weather  fairly  opens, 
when  they  can  be  again  removed  to  the  garden. 

Watering. — In  growing  plants  with  heat,  moisture  conditions 
must  be  especially  regarded.  Too  great  moisture  and  "damping 
off"  of  seedlings  is  largely  prevented  in  common  vegetable  seedlings 
by  adequate  ventilation  which  has  already  been  emphasized  in  con- 
nection with  prevention  of  excessive  heat.  Too  little  moisture  is 
almost  as  dangerous  as  too  much.  There  should  be  then  ample 
watering  with  a  fine  spray  or  sprinkle  of  water  from  which  the  chill 
has  been  removed.  Most  of  the  time,  water  standing  in  the  sun 
for  a  day  will  be  of  satisfactory  warmth,  but  if  not,  a  little  boiling 
water  from  the  kitchen  will  temper  quite  a  volume  of  cold  water 
for  use  in  the  beds  and  frames. 


DAMPING   OFF  133 

Damping  Off. — Damping  off  of  seedlings  is  due  to  a  fungus 
which  attacks  the  tender  growth  when  there  is  too  much  surface 
moisture.  It  may  be  produced  by  rather  a  small  amount  of  water, 
providing  the  soil  is  heavy  and  the  water  is  not  rapidly  absorbed 
and  distributed.  On  the  other  hand,  a  lighter  soil  taking  water 
more  easily  may  grow  plants  without  damping  off,  even  though  a 
great  deal  more  water  has  been  used  than  on  the  heavier  soil.  Too 
much  shade  which  prevents  the  sun  from  drying  the  surface  soil 
is  also  likely  to  produce  damping  off,  therefore  one  has  to  provide 
for  just  the  right  amount  of  shade  and  the  right  amount  of  venti- 
lation through  circulation  of  the  air,  etc.  The  use  of  sand  on  the 
surface  of  a  heavier  soil  may  save  plants  from  damping  off,  be- 
cause the  sand  passes  the  water  quickly  and  dries,  while  a  heavier 
surface  soil  would  remain  soggy.  Lime  may  be  of  advantage  if  not 
used  in  too  great  quantities  because  it  disintegrates  the  surface  of  the 
soil  and  helps  to  produce  a  dryness  which  is  desirable.  Success  in 
keeping  the  surface  dry  enough  and  yet  providing  the  seedlings 
with  moisture  for  a  free  and  satisfactory  growth  is  a  matter  which 
must  be  determined  by  experience  and  good  judgment  and  cannot 
be  completely  covered  by  any  formula  or  prescription.  Damping 
off  may  be  reduced  or  prevented  by  sterilization  of  the  soil  before 
planting  by  using  a  pan-like  cover  of  the  surface  and  admitting 
live  steam  under  the  cover  and  raising  the  surface  to  a  high  heat — 
but  this  is  a  process  too  elaborate  for  small  growers  to  undertake. 

Covering  for  Beds  and  Frames. — California  growers  largely 
substitute  cloth  for  glass  in  covering  hot-beds  or  cold  frames,  be- 
cause it  gives  all  the  protection  needed,  is  also  rather  more  of  a 
safeguard  against  over-heating  and  furnishes  shade  from  too  in- 
tense sun  heat  which  is  liable  to  come  on  any  winter  day  and  do 
harm.  This  is  an  especially  valuable  feature  in  amateur  growing 
where  one's  attention  is  apt  to  be  distracted  by  other  affairs.  Be- 
sides, the  cloth  is  of  nominal  cost.  In  the  drier  parts  of  the  state 
the  cloth  is  used  without  preparation.  Where  rains  are  more  fre- 
quent water-proofing  is  desirable.  Take  white  cloth  of  a  close 
texture,  stretch  it,  and  nail  it  on  frames  of  any  size  you  wish, 
putting  in  cross-bars  to  sustain  the  cloth  if  the  frame  is  large. 
Mix  two  ounces  of  lime  water,  four  ounces  of  linseed  oil,  one  ounce 
of  white  of  eggs  separately,  two  ounces  of  yolk  of  eggs;  mix  the 
lime  and  oil  with  a  very  gentle  heat ;  beat  the  eggs  separately  and  mix 
with  the  former.  Spread  the  mixture  with  a  paint-brush  on  the 


134  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

cloth,  allowing  each  coat  to  dry  before  applying  another,  until  they 
become  waterproof. 

To  make  waterproof  cloth  with  less  labor  if  considerable  quan- 
tity is  wanted :  Soften  four  and  one-half  ounces  of  glue  in  eight 
and  three-quarter  pints  of  water,  cold  at  first ;  then  dissolve  in,  say  a 
wash-boiler  full  (six  gallons)  of  warm  water,  with  two  and  one-half 
ounces  of  hard  soap;  put  in  the  cloth  and  boil  for  an  hour,  wring 
and  dry;  then  prepare  a  bath  of  a  pound  of  alum  and  a  pound  of 
salt  to  about  five  gallons  of  water,  soak  the  prepared  cloth  in  it 
for  a  couple  of  hours,  rinse  with  clear  water  and  dry.  One  gallon 
of  the  glue  solution  will  soak  about  ten  yards  of  cloth.  This  cloth 
has  been  used  in  southern  California  for  several  years  without 
mildewing  and  it  will  hold  water  by  the  pailful. 

Handling  of  Seedlings. — As  has  been  hinted  already,  seedlings 
grown  by  artificial  heat  or  protection  should  be  brought  along  by 
such  adjustment  of  heat  moisture  and  fresh  air  that  they  are  of 
good  healthy  color  and  sturdy  growth.  '  It  is  common  practice  to 
transplant  the  seedlings  when  quite  small  to  other  boxes  of  rather 
rich  soil,  in  which  they  are  more  widely  spaced,  and  to  continue  the 
growth  with  the  heat  for  a  time  and  then  move  the  box  to  a  cold 
frame,  giving  them  progressively  more  air  and  less  protection  until 
they  acquire  a  hardiness  for  the  open  air.  In  the  farm  garden  these 
every-day  coddling  arts  of  the  plantsman  are  apt  to  be  neglected 
and  it  will  answer  very  well  to  thin  out  the  plants  enough  in  the 
original  seed-boxes  and  to  harden  them  by  gradually  increasing 
the  exposure  in  the  declining  heat  of  the  hot-bed,  and  then  under 
slight  shelter  in  the  open  air,  until  the  time  comes  for  their  removal 
to  open  ground.  If,  however,  there  is  likely  to  be  some  time  before 
planting  out,  the  transplanting  from  the  seed-box  to  a  protected 
bed  in  the  open  air  will  allow  the  postponement  of  transplanting 
to  garden  or  field  until  a  considerably  later  date.  It  is  a  mistake  to 
hold  too  long  in  the  hot-bed  or  frame  with  the  idea  of  gaining  time 
by  having  large  plants  to  transplant.  Good,  sturdy  plants,  well 
used  to  fresh  air  and  the  lower  temperatures,  will  make  the  best 
records  in  the  open. 

Growing  Plants  in  Separate  Containers. — Planting  out  small 
seedlings  in  separate  receptacles  like  berry  baskets,  paper  flower 
pots,  etc.,  will  secure  strong  development  of  single  plants,  if  these 
containers  can  be  handled  in  a  way  to  prevent  too  free  circulation 
of  air  around  them  and  too  great  drying  out.  If  this  is  not  done, 


CARE    OF    SEEDLINGS  135 

the  plants  in  the  seed  bed  or  seed  boxes  will  show  greater  thrift. 
To  secure  better  moisture  and  at  the  same  time  great  facility  in 
planting  out,  this  method  is  commended : 

Take  common  printers'  cardboard  and  have  it  cut  into  strips  4x22  inches. 
By  folding  these  tightly  around  a  block  of  wood  3  by  3  inches  wide  and  4 
inches  high,  slipping  off  and  putting  in  a  pin,  we  have  a  square  pot  with  no 
bottom.  These  are  pressed  flat  and  packed  a  thousand  in  a  bunch  for  conveni- 
ence, until  wanted.  When  ready  to  use,  open,  give  a  quick  pinch  on  the 
corners  not  folded,  and  the  box  will  stand  almost  perfectly  square.  These 
fit  nicely  together  and  can  be  opened,  shaped  and  set  rapidly.  Place  several 
rows  at  a  time,  drop  a  little  well-rotted  manure  in  each  one,  press  down,  then 
fill  in  the  soil  with  a  shovel,  set  a  plant  in  each  box,  then  fill  in  more  soil 
until  the  boxes  cannot  be  seen.  This  prevents  the  air  from  getting  in  and 
drying  too  rapidly.  When  ready  for  the  field  slip  a  trowel  under  and  place 
them  on  a  sled  to  haul  out  to  the  field.  The  manure  serves  every  purpose 
of  a  paper  bottom  in  preventing  soil  and  plant  from  dropping  out,  and  it  does 
not  interfere  with  the  moisture  either  going  down  or  coming  up.  It  is  not 
so  necessary  to  remove  these  boxes  when  planting  out,  and  if  we  do  wish  to 
take  them  off  they  are  much  more  easily  removed  than  those  with  bottoms. 

Planting  Seedlings. — The  points  to  observe  for  planting  out 
seedlings  in  the  open  air  are  almost  exactly  the  same  as  those  already 
given  in  this  chapter  for  the  arrangement  of  proper  moisture  con- 
ditions for  seed  germination.  Depth  of  planting  depends  upon  the 
same  conditions;  firming  of  the  soil  about  the  rootlets  is  for  the 
same  reasons;  a  loose  surface  above  and  frequent  cultivation  after- 
ward are  essential  because  of  considerations  already  described.  The 
judicious  use  of  water  at  transplanting,  by  pouring  it  in  the  hole  or 
running  it  along  in  the  drill  or  furrow,  is  a  very  important  point  in 
late  work  or  in  planting  out  when  the  season  is  rather  dry,  but  the 
use  of  water  must  always  be  followed,  when  the  soil  has  dried  some- 
what, by  stirring  of  the  surface  or  other  means  of  preventing 
evaporation  or  else  the  plants  will  dwindle  and  on  investigation 
the  dead  stem  will  be  found  to  resemble  a  match  stuck  in  on  un- 
burned  brick,  if  the  soil  is  at  all  heavy  in  its  nature. 

Seedlings  to  be  planted  in  the  field  for  horse  cultivation  are 
distanced  by  the  use  of  a  marker,  as  described  in  the  chapter  on 
laying  off.  In  small  garden  beds  for  hand  work,  the  plants  can  be 
very  accurately  distanced  both  ways  by  using  a  "planting  board." 
It  is  made  of  a  width  equal  to  the  desired  distance  between  the 
rows  and  of  a  length  equal  to  the  width  of  the  bed,  and  is  carefully 
cut,  by  the  use  of  a  carpenter's  square,  so  that  the  ends  are  exactly 
at  right  angles  to  the  sides.  By  stretching  a  line  along  the  length 


136  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

of  the  bed,  and  making  one  end  of  the  board  true  with  that  line,  the 
sides  of  the  board  will  mark  two  parallel  lines  across  the  bed  and 
notches  cut  at  desired  distances  in  the  sides  of  the  board  will  show 
where  the  plants  are  to  be  set.  If  the  board  is  carefully  used  the 
bed  may  be  quickly  set  with  plants  which  will  stand  in  straight  lines 
both  ways.  Standing  on  the  board  while  planting  prevents  impact- 
ing the  ground  surface  and  disfiguring  it  with  foot-prints. 

Plants  Ready  Grown  in  Hills  for  Transplanting. — All  seed- 
lings which  it  is  desirable  to  grow  in  groups  or  hills  are  very  neatly 
and  safely  handled  by  Mr.  Adams  by  the  use  of  inverted  sods  in 
connection  with  his  hot-box  already  described.  About  the  first  of 
April  in  Napa  valley  he  takes  sods  of  native  growth  six  inches 
square  and  four  inches  deep  or  he  grows  in  seed  boxes  alfalfa  sods 
which  will  form  sufficiently  in  six  weeks  from  sowing  the  seed. 
He  makes  a  temporary  floor  of  old  boards  and  places  it  on  top  of 
the  packed  manure  of  his  hot-box.  The  inverted  sods  are  then 
packed  closely  on  this  floor  with  the  grass  gathered  in  nicely  under 
each  sod.  Exactly  in  the  middle  of  each  inverted  sod  thrust  a 
small  stick,  and  after  scarifying  each  sod  thoroughly  an  inch  or 
two  in  depth  with  an  old  caseknife,  carefully  put  over  the  whole 
bed  two  inches  of  rich  compost,  made  of  fine  creek  sand,  and  de- 
cayed sods,  a  year  or  two  old,  mixed  with  fine  sweepings  from  the 
cow-yard  gathered  in  summer  and  protected  from  winter  rains. 
Tamp  this  prepared  soil  pretty  firmly  with  the  back  of  a  hoe,  and 
plant  the  seeds  an  inch  or  so  in  depth  around  each  stick  which 
serves  to  indicate  the  middle  of  each  sod.  Plant  six  to  eight  seeds 
in  a  hill,  leaving  finally  three  of  the  strongest  plants.  A  box  three 
by  two  feet  will  hold  twenty-four  sods. 

By  this  method  Mr.  Adams  quickly  gets  a  full  family  outfit 
ready  to  transplant  in  hills  from  one  hot-box.  He  finds  two  hills  of 
cucumbers,  six  of  muskmelons,  six  of  watermelons,  and  ten  hills  of 
pole  beans,  or  eight  hills  of  beans  and  two  hills  of  summer  squashes 
will  furnish  a  family  of  five  all  or  more  than  they  can  possibly 
consume,  and  some  to  sell  or  give  away  besides,  if  the  plants  are 
well  taken  care  of.  The  box  for  early  plants  should  be  placed  on 
the  south  side  of  a  shed  or  barn  in  order  to  protect  it  from  strong 
north  winds,  heavy  cold  rains,  as  well  as  danger  of  frost,  and  water 
as  needed  with  lukewarm  water.  Transplant  the  sods  when  safe 
bv  running  a  wide  shingle  or  spade  on  the  floor  under  each  sod. 


WHAT    CAN    BE   DONE    WITH    CANS  137 

In  planting  out  the  sods  must  be  well  bedded  in  moist  soil  which  is 
closely  firmed  around  them  and  the  surface  kept  loose. 

Cuttings  and  Layers. — Many  herbaceous  stems  of  garden 
vegetables  root  readily  from  cuttings.  Higher  heat  and  greater 
moisture  are  as  a  rule  requisite  for  such  cuttings  than  for  hard- 
wood cuttings  of  fruiting  and  flowering  plants,  but  some,  like  the 
potato,  sweet  potato,  globe  artichoke,  etc.,  root  quickly  in  open 
ground  taken  from  sprouts  taken  from  the  parent  stock,  and  others, 
like  the  tomato,  grow  from  cuttings  of  aerial  stems.  In  the  open 
ground  the  soil  must  be  warm  and  moist  and  the  air  moist  also. 
These  conditions  usually  occur  in  California  at  the  beginning  or 
especially  towards  the  end  of  the  rainy  season,  or  they  can  be  pro- 
duced in  a  hot-bed  at  any  time.  The  cuttings  should  not  wilt,  and 
shade  is  of  advantage  when  practicable,  for  cuttings  made  from 
aerial  stems,  as  they  are  more  prone  to  collapse  than  sprouts  from 
the  tuber  or  root  crown. 

Layering  is  often  a  handy  way  to  multiply  many  vegetables 
with  branching  stems.  Cover  the  stems  with  moist  earth  and  they 
usually  root  readily.  In  some  cases  a  short  slit  with  a  knife  length- 
wise of  buried  stem  aids  in  rooting. 

A  Consideration  of  Cans. — It  would  not  do  to  ignore  the  can 
method  of  vegetable  growing  and  deny  this  refuse  tinware  its  place 
in  amateur  gardening,  for  really  some  very  creditable  things  are 
done  in  cans.  If  one  prepares  the  right  kind  of  soil,  with  such 
texture  that  it  will  form  neither  a  leach  nor  a  brick,  and  then  strives 
for  correct  temperature  and  moisture  conditions  and  makes  drain- 
age holes  enough,  a  plant  will  grow  in  a  tin  can  as  well  as  in  some 
more  distinguished  receptacle.  Many  housewives  grow  very 
creditable  tender  plants  for  planting  out  by  using  old  cans  and  a 
sunny  window  shelf.  Some  devoted  city  gardeners  make  surpris- 
ing successes  on  the  old  can  foundation.  In  San  Jose  a  few  years 
ago  there  was  a  back  yard  twelve  by  twenty-five  feet  surrounded  by 
high  whitewashed  fences  and  sheds  which  cast  a  blinding  glare  in 
the  eye  of  the  visitor.  Gardening  enthusiasm  and  tin  cans  trans- 
formed the  scene.  Tomato  vines  ran  above  the  eaves  of  the  shed, 
being  trained  to  the  wall  like  grapevines.  Between  the  tomato 
plants  were  squash  vines  from  which  the  laterals  and  leaves  were 
cut  as  they  grew  toward  the  roof,  so  that  they  were  little  more 
than  a  bare  stem  below  the  eaves,  but  had  a  most  luxurious  growth 
at  the  eaves  and  on  the  roof  of  shed  and  back  porch  and  along  top 


138  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES 

of  fences.  Large  squashes  ripened  on  the  roof  and  shelves  at  the 
eaves  and  fence  tops.  Lima  beans  ran  in  various  directions.  String 
beans,  peppers,  and  mint  grew  below  the  running  vines.  Tomato 
plants  over  six  feet  in  height  were  severely  pruned  near  the  ground 
to  a  bare  stalk,  giving  free  circulation  to  cats,  breezes,  and  a  little 
direct  but  more  reflected  sunshine.  Cans  of  all  sizes  were  used ;  old 
rusty  five-gallon  cans  with  the  bottoms  punched  full  of  holes ;  small 
cans,  one  set  over  another  and  filled  half  full  of  fresh  bones,  and 
over  these  several  inches  of  fresh  wood  ashes.  Water  poured  into 
the  cans,  leached  through  the  ashes,  combining  a  complete  fertilizer 
and  system  of  sub-irrigation.  The  cans  were  often  artfully  concealed 
from  sight,  but  they  were  there  as  the  foundation  of  an  enterprise. 
By  their  use  and  the  employment  of  vertical  space  for  the  plant 
extension,  this  little  mite  of  a  city  back  yard  was  made  into  a  pretty 
greenery  without  interfering  with  its  function  as  a  clothes-drying 
yard  on  Mondays.  When  one  sees  such  things  he  is  led  to  wonder 
whether  there  is  anything  which  Will  and  Work  and  Water  can 
not  accomplish. 


CHAPTER    XII. 
ARTICHOKES. 

THE  GLOBE  OR  BUR  ARTICHOKE. — Cynara  Scolymus. 

French,   artichant ;    German,   artischoke ;    Dutch,   artisjok;    Danish,   artis- 
kok ;  Italian,  articiocca,  carciofo ;  Spanish,  alcachofa ;  Portuguese,  alcachofra. 
Edible  part,  portions  of  young  flower  buds. 

THE  CARDOON. — Cynara  cardunculus. 

French,  cardon ;  German,  kardon ;  Flemish,  kardoen ;  Italian,  Spanish 
and  Portuguese,  cardo. 

THE  JERUSALEM  ARTICHOKE. — Helianthus  tuberosus. 

French,  topinambour ;  German,  erdapfel ;  Flemish,  aardpeer ;  Danish, 
jordskokken;  Italian,  girasole  del  canada ;  Spanish,  namara ;  Portuguese, 
topinambor. 

Edible  part,  the  tuber. 

San  Francisco  has  the  reputation  of  being  the  city  of  the 
United  States  best  supplied  with  the  delicious  young  flower  buds 
of  the  globe  artichoke.  Although  this  is  true,  it  is  also  a  fact  that 
the  plant  is  not  used  to  even  a  small  fraction  of  its  possibility  in 
California.  It  is  perfectly  hardy  in  our  valley  climates,  in  fact  it 
makes  its  chief  growth  in  the  winter  and  yields  its  crop  from  No- 
vember onward,  thus  completely  reversing  its  eastern  and  north 
European  record,  where  it  starts  growth  in  the  spring  from  roots 
which  have  been  covered  out  of  reach  of  freezing  all  winter.  The 
plant  is,  therefore,  of  especial  value  in  California  for  use  in  late 
winter  and  early  spring  when  garden  supplies  are  scantiest.  It  is  a 
garden  ornament  also  with  its  height  of  four  feet  or  more,  its  large 
pinnatifid  leaves,  light  green  above  and  whitish  below,  and  its  flow- 
ers in  the  style  of  a  colossal  thistle  head. 

The  globe  artichoke  as  a  shipping  vegetable  has  received  con- 
siderable attention  during  recent  years,  and  the  chief  producing 
region  is  on  the  coast  side  of  San  Mateo  county,  just  south  of  San 
Francisco.  Shipments  to  eastern  cities  begin  in  December  or  Janu- 

(139) 


140  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

ary,  and  continue  until  June.  Such  shipments  reached  about  300 
carloads  in  1913.  The  buds  are  packed  in  wooden  drums  holding 
about  seventy  pounds  each  and  about  450  drums  go  to  the  car.  It 
is  fair  to  expect  an  increasing  demand  because  the  vegetable  is  only 
beginning  to  be  understood  and  appreciated  by  Americans.  When 
they  learn  its  delicacy  a  continuous  supply  from  California  during 
the  winter  season  should  meet  a  largely  increased  demand. 

Soil. — The  globe  artichoke  will  thrive  on  any  well-prepared 
garden  soil  and  does  not  refuse  a  pretty  heavy  adobe  if  well  culti- 
vated to  retain  moisture.  It  delights  in  manuring  and  is  benefited 
by  it  both  in  the  tenderness  of  its  buds  and  the  multiplication  of 
bearing  stems.  Either  a  complete  commercial  fertilizer  or  barnyard 
manure  may  be  quite  freely  used — the  latter  even  at  the  rate  of  ten 
or  twelve  tons  to  the  acre,  applied  early  in  the  rainy  season. 

Propagation. — The  plant  grows  readily  from  seed  which  may 
be  planted  either  in  boxes  or  the  open  ground  in  September,  if  irri- 
gation is  available;  if  not,  sow  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  deeply 
moistened  by  rain.  The  seedlings  may  be  transplanted,  when  six 
or  eight  inches  high,  to  permanent  place  whenever  the  ground  is 
suitable  the  same  season.  Transplanted  seedlings  usually  bear 
within  a  year. 

But  there  is  much  variation  in  plants  grown  from  seed  and 
those  grown  from  parts  of  old  plants  of  good  type  are  preferred. 
The  plant  grows  readily  from  dividing  the  stool  or  from  suckers 
detached  from  the  root  crown.  The  latter  furnish  an  excellent 
means  of  multiplication  and  should  be  secured  by  first  uncovering 
the  stool  as  soon  as  there  is  a  good  growth  of  new  shoots  with  well- 
developed  leaves.  Remove  the  shoots  carefully  with  a  knife  or 
sharp  gouge  so  as  to  take  a  small  part  of  the  parent  root  at  the 
base  of  the  shoot.  Many  plants  can  thus  be  taken  from  a  single 
root-crown  and  a  few  of  the  best  shoots  left  for  growth.  Shorten 
the  leaves  somewhat  to  reduce  evaporation  until  new  roots  are 
formed.  These  sprouts  can  be  planted  at  once  in  permanent  place 
if  the  ground  is  warm  and  moist  and  will  bear  late  in  the  same  year. 
It  is  possible  then  by  starting  new  plants  at  intervals  to  have  a  long 
producing  period  in  each  year.  The  old  stools  will  continue  bear- 
ing for  many  years. 

Distance. — So  free  is  the  growth  in  this  state,  it  is  better  to 
give  a  good  distance ;  three  feet  apart  in  rows  which  are  four  or 
five  feet  apart  is  not  too  much  room  for  convenience.  As  the  plant 


JERUSALEM    ARTICHOKE  141 

is  high  and  rather  dense  the  rows  should  be  placed  in  the  back- 
ground of  the  small  garden  and  its  use  as  an  ornamental  hedge  or 
screen  is  suggested,  providing  the  ground  is  kept  rich  and  well 
cultivated.  A  row  of  the  plants  along  an  irrigating  ditch  is  usually 
very  desirable,  both  for  use  and  beauty. 

Gathering. — The  flower  buds  should  be  removed  as  soon  as 
they  are  well  formed  and  before  the  scales  open.  In  this  condition 
they  are  more  tender  and  a  larger  portion  of  the  scale  is  edible. 
As  the  bud  stands  at  the  apex  of  the  shoot,  the  shoot  should  be  cut 
to  the  ground.  If  this  is  done  the  plant  is  induced  to  send  up  more 
shoots.  As  soon  as  the  flowers  are  allowed  to  open,  the  growth  of 
shoots  from  below  is  checked  or  stopped.  Hence  prompt  cutting 
as  soon  as  in  condition  insures  a  larger  bearing  season,  but  as  other 
vegetables  come  into  condition,  the  plants  should  be  allowed  to 
make  free  top  growth  for  the  reinforcement  of  the  roots  for  the 
next  season. 

Variety. — The  variety  chiefly  grown  in  California  is  the  Large 
Green  Paris,  a  vigorous  grower  yielding  buds  of  large  size  with 
scales  very  fleshy  at  the  base  and  set  in  a  broad  receptacle  also 
fleshy.  This  variety  grown  for  succession  seems  to  leave  little  op- 
portunity for  the  use  of  other  varieties. 

It  is  very  necessary  that  discrimination  should  be  made  against 
poor  seedlings  which  have  loose  bud-formation  and  a  spiny  growth. 
Such  seedlings  should  be  extirpated. 

THE   CARDOON. 

The  cardoon  is  closely  related  to  the  globe  artichoke,  and  re- 
sembles it  in  growth  except  that  it  attains  larger  size.  Its  edible 
part  is,  however,  the  stem  and  midrib  of  the  leaf,  and  not  the  flower 
bud  as  in  the  artichoke.  It  is  propagated  from  seed  and  not  from 
sprouts,  and  to  produce  satisfactory  quality,  the  seedling  must  be 
pushed  to  quick  growth  by  ample  manure  and  moisture.  The  car- 
doon is  hardy  in  the  coast  region,  and  can  be  grown  for  autumn  or 
spring  use,  or  for  succession  at  nearly  all  times.  The  plant  is 
ready  for  use  in  about  six  months  from  sowing.  It  is  apt  to  be- 
come a  bad  weed  in  pasture  fields  or  roadsides. 

THE    JERUSALEM    ARTICHOKE. 

This  plant  which  will  be  readily  recognized  as  a  tuberous- 
rooted  sunflower,  is  exceedingly  prolific  in  California.  It  is  not 


142  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

largely  used  for  human  food,  though  it  is  usually  to  be  found  in 
the  San  Francisco  market.  It  somewhat  resembles  a  potato  in 
flavor,  and  yet  has  its  own  distinctive  character,  and  is  cooked  in 
several  ways.  It  may  be  baked,  or  pared  or  cooked  like  salsify,  or 
boiled  for  use  in  soups  and  salads.  It  does  not  resemble  the  potato 
in  keeping  quality,  for  it  is  apt  to  decay  quickly  after  digging. 

Soil,  Cuture  and  Yield. — The  Jerusalem  artichoke  is  not  very 
particular  about  soil.  It  reaches  better  form  in  rather  a  light  soil, 
as  does  a  potato,  and  it  yields  enormously  on  a  rich  loam,  but  it 
will  probably  yield  a  greater  weight  on  a  poor,  dry  soil  than  any 
other  crop  known.  S.  J.  Murdock,  of  Orange  county,  gives  this 
account  of  the  plant: 

The  preparation  of  the  ground  and  the  subsequent  cultivation  is  the 
same  as  for  potatoes;  the  rows  should  not  be  less  than  four  feet  apart,  and 
three  feet  between  plants.  Plant  small  tubers  or  the  larger  ones  cut  to 
two  eyes,  and  about  four  inches  deep.  Keep  the  ground  stirred  to  prevent 
weeds,  till  the  plants,  shade  the  patch,  and  then  they  will  take  care  of 
themselves.  They  should  yield  from  seven  to  fifteen  tons  per  acre,  or 
even  more,  with  a  good  stand,  good  soil,  and  care.  Last  year  was  a  dry 
one,  and  a  neighbor  of  mine  planted  one  acre  to  artichokes,  but  got  but 
little  over  half  a  stand  on  account  of  parts  of  his  land  being  too  dry.  Yet 
with  his  partial  stand  he  raised  ten  tons  of  tubers. 

But  Mr.  Murdock  and  his  neighbors  operate  on  a  peat  soil  of 
great  looseness  and  richness,  which  favors  the  maximum  size  and 
multiplication  of  the  tubers.  His  results  are,  therefore,  not  attain- 
able everywhere,  but  still  the  growth  and  productiveness  of  the 
plant  are  marvelous  in  this  climate. 

Gathering. — In  the  garden  the  artichoke  bed  can  be  regarded 
as  a  permanent  investment.  Digging  can  begin  in  the  autumn  at 
one  end  of  the  bed  and  proceed  regularly  through  it  as  the  tubers 
are  wanted  until  growth  starts  in  the  spring.  Selecting  the  large 
tubers  for  use  and  leaving  the  small  ones  in  the  soil  will  harvest 
and  replant  the  crop  at  one  operation.  Before  the  rains  are  over, 
the  bed  should  have  a  top  dressing  of  manure  and  then  it  is  ready 
for  another  season,  with  no  farther  care  except  pulling  weeds  which 
start  early. 

The  Jerusalem  artichoke  has  been  commended  for  years  as  a 
food  for  hogs — the  animals  to  do  their  own  harvesting.  Some  grow- 
ers are  very  enthusiastic  over  it,  but  why  it  has  not  been  more 
widely  employed  has  never  been  fully  explained.  Some  growers 
commend  them  highly  as  cow-feed,  and  when  boiled,  fowls  eat  them 


ARTICHOKE   VARIETIES  143 

readily,  but  the  cost  of  digging  for  such  purposes  is  a  serious  draw- 
back. 

Varieties. — Two  varieties  have  been  widely  distributed  in  Cali- 
fornia:  the  White  French  and  the  Red  Brazilian.  The  white  kind 
is  preferred  for  table  use  and  the  red  is  chosen  for  field  growth  for 
stock,  as  it  is  rather  more  vigorous  and  prolific.  The  red  variety  is, 
however,  frequently  found  in  our  vegetable  markets  and  is  ac- 
ceptable for  table  use. 


CHAPTER   XIII. 
ASPARAGUS. 

ASPARAGUS — Asparagus  Officinalis. 

French,  asperge;  German,  spargel ;  Flemish  and  Dutch,  aspersie;  Danish, 
asparges;   Italian,  sparagio;   Spanish,   esparrago;   Portuguese,  espargo. 

Asparagus  is  a  leading  winter  vegetable  in  California  and  is 
produced  as  a  field  crop  for  local  sale,  for  canning,  and  for  eastern 
shipment.  It  is  not  grown,  however,  as  a  garden  crop  for  home 
use  as  widely  as  it  should  be.  This  is  probably  to  be  accounted  for 
in  part  by  the  fact  that  in  nearly  all  towns  it  can  be  cheaply  bought 
during  the  winter  and  spring:  in  part,  also,  to  an  exaggerated  no- 
tion of  the  difficulty  of  making  and  caring  for  an  asparagus  bed. 
On  the  drier  lands  of  the  interior,  even  with  irrigation,  it  is  apt 
to  be  stringy  and  tough,  but  on  interior,  moist  lowlands,  it  is  grand 
and  is  largely  grown  on  such  lands  both  for  canning  and  shipment 
fresh.  In  almost  all  parts  of  the  state  it  is  not  difficult  for  the  at- 
tentive gardener  to  secure  crop  and  quality  which  will  amply  repay 
his  efforts.  Regions  open  to  coast  influences  either  directly  or 
through  gaps  in  the  Coast  Range,  or  regions  where  atmospheric 
humidity  is  increased  somewhat  by  evaporation  from  moist  soil  or 
wide  water  surface,  as  is  the  case  in  interior  river  bottoms,  have 
superior  conditions  for  the  growth  of  the  plant  which  is  maritime 
in  its  origin  and  nature.  On  the  peat  lands  of  Orange  county 
asparagus  established  itself  as  an  escape  from  cultivation  and  it  is 
stated  that  this  demonstration  of  its  choice  of  situation  suggested 
the  larger  plantings  for  distant  shipment  which  have  been  made. 

Soil. — The  low  peat  lands  of  Orange  county  just  mentioned 
are  composed  of  vegetable  debris  intermixed  with  sand,  and  are 
very  loose  and  penetrable  in  their  texture.  They  are  also  under- 
laid by  impervious  strata  at  considerable  depth,  which  holds  water 
within  reach  of  the  plant  roots.  Similar  soil  and  moisture  condi- 
tions are  found  in  the  reclaimed  lands  of  the  Sacramento  and  San 
Joaqum  deltas.  In  both  these  regions,  though  five  hundred  miles 

(144) 


GROWING    PLANTS    FROM    SEED  145 

distant  from  each  other,  the  conditions  of  soil,  moisture,  and  heat 
are  comparable  and  so  are  the  growers'  results.  But  it  is  not  essen- 
tial that  just  these  conditions  prevail.  In  the  Santa  Clara  Valley 
and  elsewhere  deep  alluvial  soils  without  any  great  amount  of 
vegetable  debris  have  for  many  years  furnished  large  quantities  to 
the  markets.  Any  deep,  rich  sandy  loam,  moist  enough  to  give  a 
winter  and  spring  crop  and  a  summer  growth  of  foliage  to  rein- 
force the  roots,  will  grow  good  crops  of  asparagus  for  years  with 
proper  cultivation,  generous  manuring,  and  occasional  salting. 
Soils  which  are  too  wet  or  too  dry  or  too  heavy  to  allow  free  growth, 
yield  inferior  shoots,  tough,  stringy,  or  bitter  as  the  case  may  be. 
Of  course  a  heavy  soil  may  be  improved  for  a  garden  bed  of  aspara- 
gus by  free  use  of  sand  and  manure  well  worked  through  it  but 
commercial  plantings  should  only  be  made  on  naturally  fit  soils. 

Growing  the  Plants. — Asparagus  grows  readily  from  seed 
and  in  this  state  well-grown  yearling  roots  are  used  for  planting 
out  in  preference  to  older  ones.  The  house  gardener  can,  there- 
fore, save  a  year's  time  by  buying  roots  from  the  seedsmen,  but 
for  the  large  plantation  the  grower  will  usually  grow  his  own  plants. 
This  can  be  done  in  the  open  air;  adequate  moisture  and  a  light, 
fine  soil  will  insure  success  the  first  year  if  the  seed  is  grown  early 
enough  to  get  the  benefit  of  a  full  season's  growth.  A  light,  coarse 
soil  which  may  be  excellent  for  the  after  growth  of  the  roots,  is 
not  so  good  for  starting  the  seedlings  because  of  danger  of  sur- 
face drying.  A  mixture  of  fine  sediment  will  improve  a  coarse  soil 
for  this  purpose.  A  very  good  way  to  get  quick  germination  and 
large  root  growth  is  to  start  the  seed  bed  in  February  or  March,  as 
the  soil  becomes  warm:  get  good,  fresh  seed;  take  boxes,  say  apple 
boxes,  or  any  boxes  of  about  that  size;  get  good,  clean  sand,  and 
mix  sand  and  seed  together,  about  fifteen  parts  of  sand  to  one  part 
of  seed;  fill  the  boxes  with  sand  and  seed  mixed  as  described;  set 
away  in  a  warm  place  and  pour  on  water,  quite  warm,  two  or  three 
times  during  the  first  two  days. 

In  the  meantime,  prepare  and  richly  pulverize  a  piece  of  ground 
for  a  seed  bed.  Make  rows  about  four  feet  apart  by  raking  all 
lumps  and  clods  away,  forming  a  kind  of  ditch  say  two  or  three 
inches  below  the  level  of  the  land.  Make  your  ditches  about  one 
foot  wide,  and  watch  the  seed  closely,  for  if  the  seed  is  good  in 
about  seven  days  nearly  all  the  seeds  will  begin  to  sprout.  Then 
take  the  boxes  of  sand  and  seed  to  the  prepared  ground  and  sprinkle 


146  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

it  in  the  rows  or  ditches  quite  freely,  using  judgment  all  the  time 
not  to  get  too  much  or  too  little.  Cover  up  with  finely  pulverized 
earth  about  one  and  one-half  inches  deep,  and  if  the  ground  is 
moist  your  plants  will  be  up  and  growing  in  a  very  few  days,  at 
least  before  the  weeds  will  make  their  appearance.  Let  the  plants 
stand  there;  but  take  good  care  of  them.  They  are  very  quickly 
injured  by  drying  out.  The  bed  should  be  kept  clean  and  moist. 

This  method  gives  seedlings  scattered  through  a  space  one  foot 
wide  and  though  the  cultivator  may  be  used  between  these  foot- 
strips,  there  must  be  hand-pulling  of  weeds  within  the  strips.  For 
this  reason  some  growers  prefer  to  start  the  plants  in  thin  rows  by 
sowing  the  seed  in  a  drill  and  afterwards  spacing  the  plants  in  the 
row  to  prevent  crowding  on  the  roots.  In  this  practice  the  rows 
are  placed  one  to  two  feet  apart  according  as  hand  or  horse  cultiva- 
tion is  to  be  practiced.  Whichever  method  is  followed  it  is  import- 
ant to  start  the  seeds  in  a  slight  depression  so  that  subsequent  culti- 
vation may  level  the  ground  and  bring  a  deeper  covering  over  the 
young  root  crowns  to  guard  them  from  excessive  heat.  The  seed 
can,  however,  in  a  light  soil,  be  placed  at  a  depth  of  two  inches  and 
the  moisture  can  be  retained  near  the  surface  by  careful  raking  to 
prevent  crusting  over.  A  rake  with  thin  teeth  can  be  used  even 
after  the  seedlings  have  appeared,  to  keep  the  soil  loose  about  them. 

Planting  Out  the  Garden  Bed. — Garden  beds  or  rows  can  be 
made  by  the  old  system  of  trenching  if  it  is  desired,  although  recent 
practice  rather  discards  it.  Trench  about  eighteen  or  twenty  inches 
deep,  then  fill  up  with  well-rotted  manure,  dig  the  next  trench  and 
throw  the  dirt  over  on  the  top  of  the  trench  filled  with  manure,  and 
so  on  until  all  is  trenched.  Then  begin  and  stir  the  last  trench  up  with 
the  dirt,  measure  off  the  distance  the  asparagus  plants  are  to  stand, 
say  two  feet  if  for  hand  hoeing,  and  then  stick  a  stake,  set  the  plants, 
and  then  take  the  dirt  off  of  the  next  trench  to  cover  the  plants,  and 
so  on  until  over  the  ground,  when  all  the  plants  will  be  set. 

If  the  garden  is  small,  the  soil  rich,  the  moisture  ample,  some 
other  use  can  be  made  of  the  bed  the  first  year.  The  stakes  will 
show  the  locations  of  the  asparagus  roots.  Between  these  stakes  set 
a  cabbage  plant  and  then  in  the  middle  of  the  row  set  out  lettuce 
plants,  and  sow  radishes,  carrots,  and  early  turnips.  The  carrots 
and  radishes  will  be  disposed  of  before  the  cabbages  are  ready  and 
some  other  quick  growing  vegetable  can  be  put  in,  after  irrigation. 
The  second  year  give  the  whole  ground  to  the  asparagus,  and  in  the 


FIELD    PLANTING  147 

fall  clean  off  the  bed,  cover  with  a  coat  of  coarse  manure  to  keep  the 
ground  from  packing  with  the  heavy  rains,  and  fork  it  all  in  early 
in  the  following  spring,  being  careful  not  to  injure  the  root  crowns. 
A  small  cutting  can  be  made  the  second  season,  but  it  will  help  fu- 
ture crops  to  cut  very  little. 

Field  Planting  of  Asparagus. — Roots  can  be  moved  from  the 
seed-bed  to  the  field  at  any  time  from  November  to  April,  accord- 
ing to  condition  of  soil  and  activity  of  roots.  As  with  other  plant- 
ings, however,  early  practice  is  better  when  all  is  favorable.  As  to 
methods  of  planting  in  the  field  the  experience  of  two  prominent 
large-scale  growers  is  given.  First,  the  method  of  Mr.  William 
Boots,  one  of  the  old  line  asparagus  growers  on  the  alluvial  lands  of 
the  Santa  Clara  valley : 

Next  March  (for  T  think  March  the  best  month  to  plant  in,  all  else  being 
equal)  choose  a  good  piece  of  land,  the  very  best  is  none  too  good,  and 
plow  just  as  deep  as  you  can.  I  plow  with  four  good  horses  on  a  single 
plow,  and  plow  one  foot  deep,  getting  the  land  in  as  good  condition  as  pos- 
sible. Take  a  good  team  and  draw  furrows  where  the  rows  are  wanted, 
going  twice  in  the  same  place,  just  as  deep  as  we  can  get  the  plow  to  run, 
throwing  the  furrow  each  way,  making  the  distance  six  feet  between  rows. 
Then  carefully  take  up  the  plants,  carefully  separate  them,  for  if  they  have 
been  very  closely  grown  they  will  cling  together;  spread  out  the  roots  as 
you  plant  them,  clearing  away  all  clods  or  anything  that  may  hinder  the 
growth.  Plant  not  closer  than  three  feet  between  .plants  in  the  rows.  For 
field  planting  for  the  market  by  all  means  do  not  plant  closer  than  six  feet 
between  the  rows,  and  three  feet  apart  in  the  rows ;  for  if  there  is  a  plant 
that  delights  in  plenty  of  room  and  air  it  certainly  is  asparagus.  Cover  the 
plants  about  two  inches  deep,  and  during  the  summer  cultivation  the  pulver- 
ized earth  will  drop  into  the  ditches,  and  by  the  time  the  season's  cultivation 
is  over  the  ditches  or  furrows  will  be  nearly  full,  which  finishes  the  first  year 
in  the  field. 

Another  method  is  that  approved  by  S.  J.  Murdock,  on  the  peat 
lands  of  Orange  county : 

The  rows  should  be  four  feet  apart  and  the  plants  eighteen  inches  from 
each  other  in  the  rows,  and  even  more  room  would  be  better  if  the  land  is 
not  too  valuable.  After  the  ground  is  well  plowed  and  finely  harrowed,  mark 
out  the  rows  the  desired  distance  apart  with  a  plow  by  going  twice  in  each 
row,  throwing  a  furrow  each  way  from  the  center  of  the  row,  and  from 
eight  to  twelve  inches  deep ;  then  go  one  or  more  rounds  in  this  with  a 
cultivator,  closed  up,  so  as  to  loosen  up  the  soil  well  in  the  bottom  of  the  row. 
If  you  have  any  fine  fertilizer  put  it  in  the  row  where  you  want  to  set  your 
plants ;  mix  well  with  the  soil  and  set  your  plants  over  it.  Place  the  plants 
in  the  bottom  of  the  prepared  furrow,  spread  out  the  roots  and  cover 
crown  and  all  about  two  or  three  inches — the  lighter  the  soil  the  deeper  the 


148 


CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 


Asparagus  Stalks  Coming  up  from  Healthy  Roots  after  Cutting 

Season 


TREATMENT   OF   ASPARAGUS    FIELD  149 

plants  should  be  placed — so  as  to  secure  the  proper  moisture  till  they  begin 
to  strike  root.  After  the  planting  has  been  done,  take  a  light  steel  garden 
rake,  or,  if  the  rows  are  even  enough,  we  would  prefer  the  wheel  hoe  with 
the  rakes  on,  'and  stir  the  soil  the  whole  length  of  the  rows.  Then,  when 
the  shoots  begin  to  grow  and  show  themselves  three  or  four  inches  high, 
the  soil  should  be  gradually  hoed  or  cultivated  to  the  plants  till  the  surface 
is  level.  The  ground  should  be  kept  moist,  and  in  most  localities  irrigation 
will  be  found  necessary  to  secure  the  best  results.  Do  not  neglect  thorough 
cultivation,  but  after  the  roots  begin  to  fill  the  ground  do  not  work  too 
deep,  as  there  is  danger  of  injuring  them. 

Giving  the  plant  plenty  of  room  favors  its  productive  longevity, 
while  closer  planting  may  secure  larger  acre-yield  at  first.  In  the 
large  commercial  plantations  on  reclaimed  lands  of  the  Sacramento 
and  San  Joaquin  river  bottoms  the  plants  are  usually  given  much 
greater  distances — say  nine  or  ten  feet  between  the  rows  and  the 
plants  two  feet  apart  in  the  row.  Much  greater  depth  of  covering 
is  secured  by  ridging  the  light,  peaty  soil,  so  that  the  shoots  have 
to  pierce  about  a  foot  of  covering  on  their  way  to  the  light.  This 
secures  the  great  length  of  large  white  shoots  which  are  character- 
istic of  California  canned  asparagus.  The  ridges  are  made  by  the 
use  of  plows,  disks  arid  crowders  which  cut  deeply  between  the 
rows  and  shift  the  soil  over  the  root  crowns,  and  the  cutting  is 
done  by  plunging  a  long  gouge  into  the  side  of  the  ridge  as  the 
protrusion  of  a  tip  indicates  the  location  of  a  good  shoot.  These 
ridges  are  split  with  a  plow  or  disk  when  the  cutting  season  is  over, 
and  the  land  leveled  for  the  summer  growth.  This  is  simply  an 
enlargement  of  old  practices,  as  described  below,  as  the  light  soil, 
largely  made  of  partly  decomposed  vegetation,  favors  cheap  shift- 
ing of  great  bulks  of  it  to  serve  different  needs  of  plants. 

Later  Treatment  of  the  Asparagus  Field. — There  are  several 
points  to  gain  in  subsequent  cultivation  of  the  asparagus  field.  One 
is  early  starting  of  the  plants,  and  for  that  purpose  some  growers 
plow  first  away  from  the  rows  to  open  the  ground  better  to  the  win- 
ter sunshine ;  another  is  to  induce  the  growth  of  long,  tender,  white 
shoots,  and  to  retain  moisture  for  prolonging  the  cutting  season, 
and  to  aid  summer  growth  of  foliage,  and  for  these  ends  the  early 
spring  plowing  is  to  cover  the  rows  with  a  deep  layer  of  loose  soil. 
Mr.  Boots'  method  is  as  follows: 

Now  do  not  attempt  to  cut  any  asparagus  until  your  plants  have  grown 
two  years,  but  cultivate  thoroughly.  The  second  season's  growth  you  will 
find  quite  strong,  and  along  in  the  fall,  after  the  frost  has  killed  the  tops, 
take  a  mowing  machine  or  scythe  and  cut  the  tops  close  to  the  ground,  pile 


150  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

up  and  burn  on  the  ground,  as  your  plants  are  too  deep  in  the  ground  to  be 
affected  by  the  fire.  Some  time  in  November  or  December  and  not  later 
than  the  first  of  January,  take  two  horses  and  plow,  and  go  along  the  rows 
close  to  the  stubs  that  you  cut  off,  throwing  the  furrows  from  the  rows,  then 
follow  along  with  sharp  hoes  and  cut  the  stubs  way  low  down;  also  break 
down  the  little  ridge  that  will  be  left  between  the  furrows.  The  sun  and  air 
will  warm  and  start  the  roots  to  growing,  sometimes  as  early  as  the  first  of 
January,  and  the  first  plowing  ought  to  be  done  before  the  sprouts  begin  to 
make  their  appearance. 

Along  in  the  early  spring  after  the  heavy  rains  are  over,  and  the  plants 
have  begun  to  push  up  nice  healthy  sprouts,  take  two  horses  and  plow,  and 
reverse  the  operation  by  throwing  the  earth  back  onto  the  rows,  leaving  the 
dead  furrow  in  the  center  between  the  rows,  covering  the  plants  up  deeply, 
leaving  the  plants  under  the  ridge.  Then  take  a  fine,  sharp-toothed  harrow, 
and  drag  along  the  rows  the  same  way  the  plow  went,  which  will  cut  up 
and  drag  out  all  clods  and  lumps,  and  leave  the  earth  in  fine  condition  for 
the  sprouts  to  come  up  through,  for  should  the  ground  not  be  in  good  order, 
your  "grass"  will  be  crippled  and  crooked.  It  will  also  be  tough,  fibrous 
and  bitter. 

Continue  thorough  cultivation  with  plenty  of  manure,  no  matter  what 
kind  or  how  rough.  At  the  same  time  finely  rotted  manure  is  profitable. 
There  is  one  thing  to  be  borne  in  mind  in  the  producing  of  asparagus ;  you 
can't  fertilize  too  much.  The  better  cultivated  and  the  more  fertilizers  the 
greater  will  be  the  quantity  and  the  better  will  be  the  quality  produced.  We 
plow  thoroughly  about  three  times  a  year,  and  harrow  as  often,  and  in  the 
cutting  season  keep  the  weeds  out  with  hoes. 

The  method  of  alternately  opening  and  covering  the  rows  is 
somewhat  conditioned  upon  the  local  soil  and  rainfall.  The  looser 
the  soil  and  the  lighter  the  winter  rain,  the  less  need  of  such  opera- 
tion, because  in  such  situations  the  heat  readily  penetrates  and  the 
roots  answer  quickly  without  uncovering,  which  may  too  greatly 
facilitate  evaporation  and  thus  be  dangerous  in  dry  localities,  even 
in  the  rainy  season.  Where  these  conditions  prevail  thorough  clean- 
ing, plowing,  and  manuring  will  fit  the  field  for  the  winter.  Mr. 
Murdock  gives  this  advice: 

In  the  fall  or  early  winter,  when  the  tops  have  turned  brown,  the  ground 
should  be  cleaned  and  all  rubbish  burned,  for  if  delayed  the  seed  will  drop 
and  get  scattered,  which  will  come  up  and  may  prove  eventually  to  be  the 
worst  weed  the  grower  will  have  to  contend  with,  for  if  allowed  to  grow 
after  once  started  it  will  soon  fill  the  whole  ground  with  a  mass  of  roots, 
and  very  soon. spoil  the  whole  patch.  As  soon  as  the  ground  is  cleaned  the 
whole  field  should  be  well  cultivated,  and  coarse  manure  spread  over  the 
entire  surface,  so  that  the  rains  can  dissolve  and  carry  down  the  soluble 
plant  food  to  the  roots.  As  the  period  of  rest  here  in  our  mild  and  warm 
winters  is  very  short,  with  this  strong  and  persisting  plant  no  delay  should 
be  indulged  in  furnishing  the  necessary  plant  food. 


HARVESTING   ASPARAGUS  151 

Quite  free  use  of  common  salt  is  desirable  for  asparagus  pro- 
viding the  land  is  not  naturally  saline  as  is  the  case  in  some  regions 
where  it  is  largely  grown.  Cheap,  refuse  salt  answers  well,  and  in 
garden  practice  the  use  of  any  old  brine  from  the  pickle  or  pork 
barrel.  An  application  of  five  to  ten  tons  of  stable  manure  or  one 
ton  of  a  complete  commercial  fertilizer  per  acre  can  be  frequently 
used.  On  the  best  peat  lands  the  crop  is  grown  for  several  years 
without  fertilization. 

The  surface  application  of  all  manures  at  the  beginning  of  the 
rainy  season  seems  best  to  suit  California  conditions. 

Harvesting. — Growers  agree  in  advising  very  little,  if  any,  cut- 
ting the  second  year  in  the  field.  The  third  season  should  be  very 
productive  if  the  plants  have  been  generously  treated,  and  thence 
onward  independently,  if  the  strength  of  the  soil  can  be  kept  up. 
An  average  product  is  about  two  tons  of  marketable  shoots  to  the 
acre,  while  three  and  even  four  tons  are  occasionally  secured.  Much 
evidently  depends  on  the  land  and  the  care  of  the  plantation. 

Mr.  Murdock's  suggestions  on  policies  in  cutting  are  as  fol- 
lows : 

Cut  all  the  shoots  clean  at  each  cutting  during  the  season,  whether  they 
are  large  enough  to  use  or  not,  for  if  part  of  stalks  are  allowed  to  grow  they 
will  prevent  other  buds  from  throwing  up  stalks,  and  make  the  season's 
cutting  short.  Keep  the  ground  well  cleaned  during  the  harvesting  period, 
and  if  you  have  been  liberal  with  your  fertilizers  and  have  kept  your  ground 
moist,  your  crop  will  last  as  long  as  a  profitable  demand  is  likely  to  exist. 
Yet,  beware  of  prolonging  the  harvesting  period  too  late,  so  as  to  weaken 
the  next  year's  crop  as  the  nature  of  the  crop  requires  that,  to  reproduce 
annually  its  crop  of  shoots,  something  must  be  left  to  grow  so  as  to  foster 
the  formation  of  new  roots  and  a  new  set  of  buds.  If  your  season  com- 
mences early  you  should  lay  by  the  knife  later  on  to  correspond ;  then  let 
all  the  tops  grow  and  do  not  cull  out  the  large  shoots  afterward.  The  time 
that  should  elapse  between  cuttings  varies  in  different  soils,  some  being 
warmer  and  consequently  quicker  than  others ;  then  again,  much  depends  on 
the  weather ;  some  years  we  will  have  warm  days  in  February,  which  will 
necessitate  cutting  twice  each  week,  and  it  may  be  followed  by  cold  days  in 
March,  when  the  cuttings  will  be  meager  once  a  week ;  and  again  in  the 
warm  days  of  May  it  may  require  three  cuttings  per  week  to  prevent  the 
heads  from  bursting,  which  spoils  it  for  market. 

Some  cut  with  a  long-handled  gouge  which  does  less  injury  to 
roots  by  side-cutting,  others  use  a  long  butcher  knife. 

There  is  variation  in  the  demand  for  color  in  the  product.  The 
local  demand  runs  largely  for  green ;  the  canning  demand  is  for 
white.  To  produce  good,  tender,  white  asparagus  it  is  necessary  to 


152  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES 

cover  more  deeply  and  blanch  the  shoots  by  continued  growth 
through  a  thicker  layer  of  loose  earth. 

Comparatively  little  asparagus  is  bunched  in  California,  except 
for  fresh  shipments  to  eastern  markets;  the  bulk  of  it  being  mar- 
keted in  large  boxes  as  loose  stalks  which  are  both  wholesaled  and 
retailed  by  the  pound.  For  distance  shipments  the  boxes  are 
marked  so  that  the  stems  stand  on  their  ends  just  as  they  grow,  for 
they  are  apt  to  bend  out  of  shape  if  lying  on  the  sides.  When  the 
asparagus  is  brought  into  the  packing  house  for  shipping  fresh  it 
is  first  separated  into  different  grades.  A  tray  of  a  size  is  then 
carried  by  a  worker  to  a  bench  where  the  asparagus  is  laid  stalk 
by  stalk  in  a  circular  press  and  tied  into  a  bunch  with  cotton  tape 
or  raffia.  All  the  bunches  are  of  one  size  and  there  is  but  one  grade 
in  each  bunch.  After  being  passed  to  an  inspector,  who  returns 
any  that  is  not  up  to  the  standard,  the  bunches  have  their  ends  cut 
off  and  are  then  wrapped  in  oiled  paper  and  packed  in  crates.  A 
couple  of  inches  of  wet  moss  is  placed  in  the  bottom  of  each  crate 
to  keep  the  asparagus  fresh,  and  an  inch  or  two  of  space  is  left 
at  the  top,  as  the  stalks  continue  to  grow  during  their  journey  and 
that  amount  of  head-room  is  desirable. 

For  near  marketing  in  the  height  of  the  season  the  asparagus 
is'  usually  delivered  in  open  boxes  holding  forty  to  fifty  pounds. 
Where  bunching  is  desirable  in  garden  practice,  it  can  be  neatly 
done  by  putting  the  stalks  point  downwards  in  a  teacup,  tying  the 
bunch,  and  then  squaring  off  the  butts  with  a  sharp  knife. 

The  asparagus  season  in  California  extends  from  January  until 
June;  although  later  cutting  is  sometimes  practiced,  it  is  not,  as 
stated,  for  the  good  of  the  plants. 

The  Asparagus  Rust. — The  disease  made  a  vigorous  attack 
upon  California  asparagus  fields  in  1905.  A  careful  study  of  the 
disease  and  experimentation  conducted  by  Prof.  R.  E.  Smith  demon- 
strated that  the  trouble  can  be  controlled  by  proper  use  of  sulphur 
for  the  protection  of  the  top  growth  after  the  cutting  season.  Full 
information  can  be  had  from  the  University  Experiment  Station  at 
Berkeley. 

VARIETIES   CHIEFLY    GROWN    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

Conover's  Colossal :  an  old  standard  variety ;  large  tender  stalks 
of  good  flavor.  Largely  grown  for  the  canneries,  which  use  it 
almost  to  the  exclusion  of  other  sorts. 


VARIETIES    GROWN    IN    CALIFORNIA 


153 


Palmetto:  widely  grown  in  California;  claimed  to  be  earlier 
than  Conover's,  also  more  productive  and  uniform  in  size;  quality 
fine;  especially  favored  for  fresh  shipments  from  southern  Cali- 
fornia. 

Barr's  Mammoth :  a  famous  Philadelphia  variety ;  very  large 
shoots  of  uniform  thickness ;  light  color  and  few  scales ;  crisp,  early 
and  fine.  Very  highly  approved  in  Orange  county. 

Columbian  Mammoth :  largely  used  by  market  growers ;  large, 
white,  handsome,  holding  color  well ;  very  productive. 

Dreer's  Eclipse :  approved  for  garden  planting. 


Corner   of  Asparagus   Field   in   Island   District,   Sheltered   on   North 
and   West.     Typical  Starting  Place  of  Rust 


CHAPTER    XIV. 
BEANS. 

THE  BROAD  BEAN. — Vicia  fab  a. 

French,  feve ;  German,  garten-bohne;  Flemish,  platteboon;  Dutch,  tuin 
boonen;  Danish,  valske  bonner ;  Italian,  fava ;  Spanish,  haba;  Portuguese, 
fava. 

THE  KIDNEY  BEAN. — Phaseolus  vulgaris. 

French,  haricot;  German,  bohne;  Flemish  and  Dutch,  boon;  Danish, 
havebonnen;  Italian,  faginolo ;  Spanish,  frijole;  Portuguese,  feijao. 

THE  SCARLET  RUNNER  BEAN. — Phaseolus  Multiflor'us. 
French,  haricots  d'Espagne;   German,  Arabische  bohne;   Dutch,  Tursche 
boon;   Italian,   fagiuolo  di   Spagria. 

THE  LIMA  BEAN. — Phaseolus  lunatus. 

French,  haricots  de  Lima;  German,  breitshottige  Lima  bohne;  Italian, 
fagiuolo  di  Lima;  Spanish,  judia  de  Lima. 

THE  BLACK-EYED  BEAN. — Vigna  sincnsis. 
A  cow  pea. 
THE  SOY  BEAN. — Glycinc  hispida. 

Of  the  vast  numbers  of  bean  varieties  known  to  horticulture, 
California  grows  but  very  few.  Market  gardeners  of  different 
nationalities,  ministering  to  their  compatriots  among  our  citizens, 
have  brought  to  California  many  varieties  which  they  esteemed  in 
their  old  homes  and  grow  them  here  in  limited  quantities,  but  the 
general  markets  and  the  gardens  and  fields  of  Americans  can  show 
but  few  sorts.  This  is  due  in  part  to  the  indisposition  of  the  people 
to  try  culinary  experiments  and  in  part  to  the  fact  that  some  varieties 
have  shown  peculiar  climatic  adaptations  and  are  therefore  better 
from  a  grower's  point  of  view.  But  though  few  varieties  are  grown, 
some  of  them  are  grown  on  a  very  large  scale — to  such  an  extent, 
in  fact,  that  five  counties  on  our  southern  coast  win  for  California 
the  distinction  of  being  the  greatest  Lima  bean  producing  country 
in  the  world. 

The  capacity  of  California  for  production  of  beans  is  appar- 
ently limited  only  by  the  extent  to  which  the  produce  can  be 
(154) 


LOCAL    ADAPTATIONS  155 

profitably  sold.  Whenever  there  is  a  falling  off  in  local  production 
of  the  common  varieties  east  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  California 
shipments  are  freely  made,  and  when,  many  years  ago,  there  was 
a  full  train-load  sold  for  Boston,  California  embraced  not  only  the 
profit  thereof,  but  the  proud  satisfaction  that  she  was  really  doing 
something  worth  while  for  the  maintenance  of  the  intellectual 
standard  of  the  country.  Train  loads  of  beans  have  now  become 
too  common  to  attract  notice. 

FIELD   CULTURE  OF   BEANS   IN   CALIFORNIA. 

Though  California  has  great  bean  producing  capacity,  the  area 
well  suited  to  the  product  is  comparatively  limited  and  only  a  frac- 
tion of  that  has  conditions  which  favor  the  Lima  bean  as  a  field 
crop.  Making  deductions  from  years  of  local  experience  it  may  be 
stated  that  the  summer  heat  and  drought  of  the  interior  plains  are 
offensive  to  most  varieties  of  the  bean  plant ;  that  occasional  frosts 
preclude  the  winter  growth  of  the  crop  over  wide  areas  where  ordi- 
nary winter  temperature  and  moisture  would  favor  it ;  that  summer 
heat  and  drought  modified  by  exposure  to  ocean  influences  or  by 
influences  existing  on  interior  river-bottom  lands,  are  acceptable 
to  the  plant  and  in  such  situations  is  the  chief  production.  From  a 
commercial  point  of  view  it  is  also  quite  important  that  towards 
the  end  of  the  season  there  should  be  a  reduction  of  the  amount  of 
moisture  in  the  soil,  so  that  the  plant  may  cease  its  growth  and 
mature  its  seed  before  the  fall  rains  make  the  harvesting  difficult 
and  stain  the  beans.  Favoring  conditions  are  thus  seen  to  be  quite 
exacting.  During  the  growing  period  of  the  plant  there  must  be  : 
first,  no  frost ;  second,  the  least  possible  duration  of  hot,  dry  winds, 
and  a  moderated  atmospheric  aridity  generally;  third,  adequate 
moisture  both  in  air  and  soil  to  maintain  healthful  vegetative 
verdure  followed  by  a  dry-soil-ripening  period  just  as  soon  as  the 
vines  have  filled  pods  enough  for  a  paying  crop. 

Local  Adaptations  to  Bean  Growing. — These  conditions  are 
•prescribed  for  a  bean  .crop  of  the  dry  seed.  They  are  all  found  in 
eminent  degree  on  the  coast  sides  of  six  counties :  San  Luis 
Obispo,  Santa  Barbara,  Ventura,  Los  Angeles,  Orange,  and  San 
Diego,  and  these  counties  produce  perhaps  nine-tenths  of  the  com- 
mercial bean  crop  of  the  state.  Of  course  extensions  of  the  region 
both  north  and  south  along  the  coast  have  similar  conditions  though 


156 


CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 


in  less  degree — deficiency  enough  to  warrant  the  remanding  of 
the  chief  crop  to  the  region  named.  Favorable  conditions  disappear 
with  even  greater  rapidity  toward  the  interior.  Each  of  the  counties 
is  disposed  on  both  sides  of  ridges  of  the  Coast  Range  mountains. 
The  ocean-side  lands  produce  the  beans;  the  interior  valleys  of  the 
same  counties,  perhaps  not  over  fifteen  miles  away,  are  beanless. 
The  mountain  ridges  exclude  the  ocean  breeze  and  the  occasional 
fogs  and  mists,  and  bean  plants  would  perish  from  dry  heat  before 
a  crop  could  be  made.  On  the  other  hand,  on  the  ocean  side  of  the 
mountains,  beans  are  planted  in  May,  after  the  rains  are  practically 
over,  and  the  ocean  tempers  heat  and  furnishes  moisture  to  the  air, 
so  that,  by  conservation  of  soil-water  by  good  cultivation,  the  crop 
is  often  made  without  a  drop  of  rain  from  seed  to  harvest. 

On  the  moist  or  irrigated  lands  of  the  interior  where  heat  and 
atmospheric  aridity  are  tempered  by  evaporation  from  large  supplies 
of  fresh  water  or  moist  soil,  there  are  also  conditions  which  suit 
some  varieties  of  beans  very  well,  and  good  crops  are  made.  But 
on  interior  lowlands  there  is  often  a  summer  rising  of  moisture 
from  rivers,  bank-full  from  melting  mountain  snows  or  other 
sources,  which  interferes  with  proper  ripening  of  the  beans  by 
pushing  the  vegetative  growth  of  the  plants  when  they  should  be 
maturing  a  crop  already  formed.  If  then  early  rains  come,  the  bean 
grower  is  apt  to  be  caught  with  his  work  unfinished  and  his  beans 
stained  or  sprouting.  However,  these  troubles  are  not  serious 
enough  to  cause  the  forsaking  of  the  crop,  and  in  an  occasional  year 
of  drought,  when  the  southern  coast  counties  do  not  get  rainfall 
enough  to  make  their  full  crop,  the  grower  on  the  interior  lowlands 
records  a  good  profit. 

The  total  farm  value  of  the  field  bean  product  of  California 
for  the  year  1909  is  placed  by  the  U.  S.  Census  at  $6,301,116,  as 
noted  at  the  close  of  Chapter  I.  The  largest  bean  crop  harvested 
was  in  1911,  the  total  of  which,  showing  the  relative  standing  of 
different  varieties,  is  as  follows : 

Limas,  sacks  of  80  Ibs.  each 1,300,000 

Pinks,  sacks  of  87  Ibs.  each / 710,000 

Blackeyes,  sacks  of  80  Ibs.  each 225,000 

Small  Whites,  sacks  of  90  Ibs.  each 215,000 

Bayos,  sacks  of  85  Ibs.  each 150,000 

Large  Whites,  sacks  of  92  Ibs.  each 75,000 

Various,  sacks  of  80  Ibs.  each 150,000 

Total  sacks  .  .  2,825,000 


SOIL   FOR   BEANS  157 

At  an  estimate  of  20  sacks  to  the  acre  the  acreage  in  beans  in 
1911  was  141,250.  The  crop  of  1912  was  smaller  owing  to  less 
favorable  conditions. 

Soil  for  Beans. — A  rich  sandy  soil,  if  it  can  be  kept  moist 
enough,  is  best  suited  to  the  growth  of  beans,  and  dry,  hot,  sandy 
soil  is  the  worst,  but  even  on  sand  near  the  beach,  fair  crops  are 
sometimes  made  by  the  help  of  aerial  moisture  and  coolness.  The 
plant  does  not  require  very  great  amount  of  moisture,  if  heat 
and  atmospheric  aridity  are  not  too  great,  but  it  insists  upon  a  cer- 
tain amount.  Crops  have  been  lost  by  choosing  land  that  was  too 
wet.  But  though  a  light  soil  seems  to  best  suit  the  plant,  it  can  be 
successfully  grown  on  any  good  garden  soil,  providing  good  culti- 
vation is  given  and  the  land  kept  from  baking  and  drying  out.  With 
adequate  care  in  this  regard,  very  good  garden  crops  are  grown  even 
on  adobe  soil,  but  the  commercial  bean  crops  are  grown  on  light  soils 
because  there  are  obvious  cultural  advantages  in  dealing  with  such 
soils. ' 

Preparation  of  Land  for  Beans. — As  our  chief  crops  of  beans 
are  grown  without  irrigation  on  light  soils,  in  regions  of  moderate 
rainfall,  the  preparation  of  the  soil  should  begin  at  the  opening  of 
the  rainy  season,  so  as  to  prepare  the  land  for  receiving  and  retain- 
ing the  maximum  amount  of  the  rain  that  falls.  Growth  of  weeds 
after  harvesting  the  beans  should  be  prevented  by  cultivation, 
because  weeds  draw  upon  moisture  and  would  produce  seed  for 
more  weeds.  This  cultivation  also  opens  the  surface  to  absorb  the 
early  rains.  When  the  soil  is  well  moistened  by  rain,  usually  not 
later  than  January,  a  good  plowing  is  given,  and  after  that  the 
chisel-toothed  cultivator  and  the  harrow  or  other  tool  fitted  to  break 
up  all  compacting  of  the  soil  at  or  below  the  surface,  are  used  at 
short  intervals  through  the  winter  to  prevent  evaporation,  and  retain 
moisture  near  the  surface.  There  is  some  variation  in  winter  prac- 
tice, as  some  plow  deeply,  some  turn  a  shallow  furrow,  and  some 
rely  wholly  upon  the  chisel  cultivator,  which  works  as  deep  as  shal- 
low plowing.  In  all  cases  the  end  in  view  is  the  same,  to  bring  the 
land  to  planting  time  with  moisture  retained  and  mellow  to  receive 
the  seed. 

Artificial  inoculation  of  soil  for  beans  is  not  found  necessary 
in  California,  probably  because  bacteria  are  abundant  from  the 
previous  growth  of  native  legumes. 


158 


CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 


Seeding   Lima   Beans — 160  Acres   per  Day 


A    ISQO-acre  Field  of  Lima  Beans  in   Ventura   County 


POINTS    OF    FIELD    CULTURE  159 

Time  of  Planting. — Hints  of  this  consideration  have  already 
been  given  to  illustrate  other  points.  As  a  general  conclusion  it 
may  be  added  that  California  experience  clearly  points  to  unde- 
sirability  of  early  planting  simply  to  keep  abreast  of  the  calendar. 
Most  of  our  commercial  beans  are  of  the  phaseolus  varieties  (kid- 
neys, Limas,  etc.),  and  they  are  tender  and  cannot  be  planted  until 
frosts  are  over  in  each  locality.  The  broad  beans,  especially  the 
Portuguese  bean,  are  more  hardy  and  in  some  districts  grow  all 
winter,  except  in  low,  frosty  places.  The  bush  beans  are  hardier 
than  the  climbers  and  can  be  safely  planted  earlier,  but  there  is 
nothing  to  be  gained  in  planting  either  in  advance  of  a  good  condi- 
tion of  warmth  and  moisture  in  the  soil.  Rather  than  trust  the  seed 
to  soil  which  is  too  cold  or  too  wet  it  is  better  to  wait  a  little,  kill 
the  weeds  by  a  shallow  working,  place  the  seed  deep  enough  to 
insure  its  contact  with  moisture  and  then  trust  to  the  more  rapid 
growth  of  the  plant  to  make  up  for  the  delay.  This  it  will  usually 
do,  and  will  shoot  ahead  so  that  it  will  be  of  good  size  for  cultiva- 
tion by  the  time  the  weeds  need  another  cutting.  Just  the.  time 
when  the  proper  soil  conditions  may  be  expected  to  arrive  will  differ 
in  the  different  localities,  according  to.  local  rainfall  and  spring 
temperatures,  the  beginning  of  the  frost-free  period,  the  nature  of 
the  soil,  etc.  As  a  generalization,  however,  it  may  be  put  at  May  1. 
to  May  15  on  the  coast,  with  a  range  of  May  1  to  June  1  for  interior 
lowlands  in  the  central  and  northern  parts  of  the  state — chiefly  to 
allow  moist  lands  to  come  into  planting  condition. 

As  to  condition  of  soil  and  weather  at  planting  Lima  beans,  it 
may  be  said  that  ample  heat  in  connection  with  soil  moisture  is 
necessary  to  start  this  variety,  and  planting  is  rushed  during  a  warm 
spell  to  insure  these  conditions.  A  rain  after  planting  is  counted  a 
detriment,  for  if  the  temperature  of  the  soil  falls  too  low  the  seed 
is  apt  to  rot.  Besides-a  shower  means  more  weeds,  and  some  large 
growers  count  it  cheaper  to  plow  up  the  'field  and  replant  than  to 
clean  out  the  weeds  in  the  rows.  Small  growers,  however,  usually 
undertake  the  hoeing  rather  than  sacrifice  the  plant  if  the  stand  is 
a  good  one. 

Manner  of  Planting. — All  commercial  crops  of  beans,  whether 
of  bush  or  running  varieties,  are  grown  in  rows.  The  planting  is 
done  with  machines  of  different  makes  and  sizes,  though  usually 
planting  from  two  to  four  rows  at  a  time.  Depth  is  determined  by 
the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  season.  The  bean  must  be  placed 


160  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

in  moist  soil,  and  if  the  surface  is  light  and  prone  to  dry  out  quickly, 
the  greater  depth  is  given,  but  the  bean  does  not  endure  as  deep 
covering  as  some  other  large  seed.  In  a  moist  surface  an  inch  will 
do,  but  in  very  light  surface  two  inches  is  better.  In  some  cases 
even  a  little  more  is  desirable.  It  must  be  remembered  that  a  few 
days'  moisture  must  be  assured  to  the  seed  to  allow  it  to  take  hold 
of  the  soil. 

In  light  soils  liable  to  strong  winds,  the  planter  should  run 
at  right  angles  to  the  course  of  the  wind,  for  it  has  been  observed 
that  the  sand  is  more  easily  shifted  when  the  wind  has  the  length- 
wise course  of  the  drills. 

Distance  is  dependent  upon  the  variety.  Lima  beans  are  usually 
placed  in  rows  about  forty  inches  apart,  with  the  planter  rigged  to 
drop  seed  at  an  average  of  about  ten  inches  apart,  in  the  row.  Small 
beans  of  various  kinds  are  given  two  to  two  and  one  half  feet  be- 
tween the  rows,  and  about  four  inches  distance  in  the  row. 

Cultivation. — Frequent  cultivation  with  knife-shaped  teeth,  is 
practiced  in  the  best  bean  soils,  to  kill  weeds  and  loosen  the  surface, 
until  the  running  varieties  cover  the  space  so  that  they  are  injured 
by  cultivation.  The  vines  then  cover  the  ground  and  check  evapora- 
tion and  the  crop  is  left  to  its  own  course.  With  bush  varieties 
longer  and  deeper  cultivation  is  desirable,  at  least  if  the  ground  is 
apt  to  become  compact,  so  that  the  earth-mulch  described  in  the 
chapter  on  cultivation  is  maintained. 

Gathering. — Gathering  the  crop  cannot  usually  wait  until  all 
the  beans  have  ripened,  for  fear  of  shelling  out  the  earlier  maturing 
pods  of  some  varieties,  and  for  fear  also  of  the  fall  rains  already 
mentioned.  Cutting  should  begin  when  the  grower's  judgment  tells 
him  he  is  about  midway  between  the  two  dangers.  The  date  will 
of  course  vary  in  different  localities.  The  Lima  bean  has  a  longer 
growing  season,  and  on  the  south  coast  is  liable  to  encounter  serious 
hot  spells  in  August  or  September  after  other  beans  are  matured 
and  beyond  injury.  This  heat  shrivels  the  immature  pods  and  lessens 
the  crop. 

Hand  pulling  or  cutting  of  the  vines,  or  plowing  out,  is  no 
longer  practiced  in  large  fields.  A  cutter  operated  by  horse  power 
is  now  used.  Two  planks  are  hitched  side  to  side,  about  two  feet 
apart.  From  each,  on  the  outside,  projects  a  steel  blade,  some  two 
feet,  fastened  to  the  bottom  of  the  so-called  sled.  Two  or  three 
horses  are  hitched  to  the  sled,  which  passes  comfortably  between 


THRESHING    BEANS  161 

two  rows  of  beans ;  the  blades  of  steel  running  from  one  to  two 
inches  under  the  surface,  sloping  backward,  cut.  off  the  vines  be- 
neath the  surface  or  loosen  them  so  that  they  are  readily  gathered 
with  pitch-forks  and  are  thrown  into  heaps.  On  the  largest  bean 
farms  traction  engines  are  used  to  cut  the  bean  roots. 

There  are  some  local  variations  in  the  form  of  the  harvester, 
and  in  some  cases  an  iron-frame  cutter  constructed  on  the  model  of 
a  V-shaped  cultivator  with  guiding  wheel  is  used. 

The  beans  are  allowed  to  be  in  the  field  in  small  piles  for  two 
to  four  weeks,  according  to  the  curing  quality  of  the  local  climate, 
until  the  vines  are  well  dried.  This  not  only  facilitates  the  opening 
of  the  pods  but  saves  the  beans  from  staining  by  contact  with  green 
leaves  or  by  the  damp  dust  they  gather. 

Threshing-floors. — The  early  method  of  threshing  was  by  use 
of  the  threshing-floor,  and  it  is  still  practiced  or  held  in  view  to 
prevent  excessive  charges  by  machine  owners.  It  is  tedious  work, 
requires  many  animals  and  exposes  the  beans  to  greater  injury  by 
early  rains.  A  threshing-floor  is  made  by  wetting  down  a  circular 
piece  of  ground  about  sixty  or  eighty  feet  across,  tramp  it  with 
horses  and  wagons  until  smooth  and  hard ;  then  cover  the  floor  with 
straw  for  a  few  days  until  it  is  dry,  when  it  is  ready  for  the  beans. 
The  first  flooring  of  beans  is  put  on  deep,  so  the  horses'  hoofs  do 
not  cut  the  floor.  Care  should  be  taken  all  the  time  during  threshing 
not  to  cut  the  floor.  Two  or  three  big  wagon  loads  of  beans  are 
placed  in  a  ring  on  this  floor  during  very  dry,  clear  weather.  For- 
merly horses  attached  to  light  wagons  were  driven  over  the  beans 
(usually  two  or  three  teams  at  a  time),  till  they  were  all  shelled 
from  the  pods.  The  vines  are  then  thrown  off  and  more  beans  from 
the  field  brought  on.  This  process  is  continued  until  there  are  many 
tons  of  beans  on  the  floor  under  those  that  are  being  threshed  out. 
After  this  the  whole  mass  of  chaff  and  beans  is  run  through  winnow- 
ing and  screening  machines  and  the  beans  placed  in  sacks  of 
seventy-five  to  eighty  pounds  each  and  are  ready  for  market.  Of 
late  years  the  teams  on  the  floor  are  attached  to  disc  machines 
instead  of  wagons,  which  greatly  facilitates  the  work. 

In  suitable  weather  tramping  is  a  less  expensive  method  than 
threshing  by  machinery,  but  there  is  far  greater  danger  from  sudden 
storms  of  rain,  as  beans  on  the  tramping-floor  are  in  the  worst  pos- 
sible shape  in  wet  weather.  Beans  in  the  field  can  stand  an  inch  or 
two  of  rain  without  much  injury,  if  allowed  to  thoroughly  dry  before 


162  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES 

threshing.  But  beans  wet  on  a  tramping-floor  while  mixed  with 
pulverized  leaves  are  irreparably  damaged,  being  stained  and  heated 
before  it  is  possible  to  clean  them.  Every  farmer  who  tramps  out 
his  beans  should  be  provided  with  sheets  of  canvas  sufficient  to  cover 
all  unwinnowed  ar  sacked  beans  liable  to  be  left  out  during  a  shower. 
Tramping  is  a  tedious  process  but  it  has  some  advantages.  It  is 
the  resource  ever  at  hand  to  meet  the  exacting  charges  of  machine 
owners.  And  besides,  during  extreme  dry  weather  beans  can  be 
tramped  well,  the  pods  being  dry  and  brittle  while  the  vines  are  still 
green  and  tough,  a  condition  in  which  a  machine  cannot  work  in 
them  at  all.  The  energetic  farmer  can  thus  often  secure  a  large 
portion  of  his  crop  before  a  machine  could  thresh  them  even  if  he 
could  get  it.  So  it  will  probably  be  many  years  before  tramping  is 
entirely  abandoned. 

Machine  Threshing. — For  many  years  attempts  were  made  to 
use  modified  grain  threshers  for  separating  beans.  At  first  there 
was  too  great  a  percentage  of  cracked  beans,  but  recently  machine 
work  has  become  more  satisfactory.  The  following  account  of  bean 
threshing  is  prepared  by  L.  W.  Fluharty : 

The  threshing  is  usually  done  with  the  bean  huller,  using  either  a  steam 
or  gasoline  engine  for  power.  The  huller  is  a  double  threshing  machine. 
There  are  two  cylinders,  one  of  which  is  placed  in  the  rear  of  the  other.  The 
rear  cylinder  operates  much  faster  than  does  the  front  one.  The  cylinder  teeth 
are  set  one-fourth  of  an  inch  farther  from  the  concave  teeth  than  in  the  regular 
grain  separator.  The  front  cylinder  threshes  only  the  beans  from  the  driest 
pods.  The  vines,  together  with  the  tougher  pods  pass  to  the  rear  cylinder, 
thus  the  beans  and  the  tougher  pods  are  threshed  by  the  high  velocity  cylinder 
while  the  dry  beans  pass  through  only  the  one  running  at  a  low  rate  of  speed. 
Much  cracking  is  prevented  by  this  arrangement. 

A  grain  separator  may,  by  proper  manipulation,  be  made  to  do  very  satis- 
factory work  provided  the  beans  have  been  stacked  long  enough  for  them  to 
go  into  the  sweat.  The  vines  and  pods  are  then  more  nearly  uniform  in  dry- 
ness.  All  but  one  row  of  concave  teeth  and  generally  half  of  the  cylinder 
teeth  are  removed.  The  cylinder  is  run  at  a  speed  of  from  350  to  400  revolu- 
tions per  minute,  the  speed  depending  upon  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder — the 
larger  the  cylinder  the  slower  it  must  be  run.  The  drive  pulley  is  enlarged 
so  that  the  separating  part  of  the  machine  runs  at  the  usual  speed  for  separat- 
ing grain. 

The  tailings  from  the  sieves  are  returned  to  the  separator  at  the  rear 
instead  of  in  front  of  the  cylinder.  By  this  arrangement  none  of  the  threshed 
beans  pass  through  the  cylinder  the  second  time.  If  there  is  a  large  amount 
of  green  pods  the  tailings  are  sometimes  taken  from  the  machine  at  the  bottom 
of  the  elevator.  In  this  way  it  is  often  possible  to  avoid  mixing  the  green 


MACHINE    THRESHING  163 

beans  with  those  that  are  ripe.  If  the  regular  grain  separator  is  used  the 
threshing  should  be  done  while  the  vines  are  in  the  sweat,  for  at  that  time  the 
seed  is  tough  and  not  easily  cracked. 

The  beans  are  gathered  into  header  wagons,  with  beds  ten  feet 
wide  and  sixteen  feet  long.  One  side  of  the  bed  is  considerably 
higher  than  the  other,  and  a  large  and  strong  net  is  spread  over  the 
entire  bed,  fastened  on  one  side,  and  into  which  the  beans  are  forked. 
This  is  driven  to  the  threshing  machine,  where  a  derrick  lifts  up  the 
lower  side  of  the  net  and  tumbles  the  contents  onto  a  large  platform, 
after  which  the  straw  and  beans  are  fed  into  the  machine  with  pitch- 
forks. It  requires  eight  header  wagons  to  keep  the  machine  busy. 
Fifteen  hundred  sacks,  averaging  seventy  pounds  each,  or  one  hun- 
dred and  five  thousand  pounds,  are  considered  a  good  day's  work. 

The  machine-threshed  beans  have  also  to  be  recleaned  before 
they  are  marketed.  Yet  there  is  one  great  advantage  with  the  steam 
thresher.  The  rainy  season  is  approaching,  and  a  shower  is  liable 
to  fall  in  October  while  the  threshing  process  is  in  full  blast,  so  that 
any  beans  that  are  caught  on  the  floors  are  ruined  if  they  do  not 
manage  to  cover  them  in  some  way,  while  by  the  machine  process 
all  beans  are  sacked  as  they  are  threshed. 

Bean  Cleaning. — It  is  imperative  now  that  beans  should  be  put 
into  good  marketable  condition.  When  prices  were  high  the  quality 
and  condition  of  the  beans  did  not  materially  interfere  with  the 
sales,  but  in  times  of  plenty,  the  best  is  hardly  good  enough  and  the 
most  scrupulous  attention  is  given  as  to  the  quality.  To  insure  the 
most  ready  sale  at  best  prices,  every  grower  should  have  the  reputa- 
tion of  putting  his  beans  in  the  sack  for  sale  in  thoroughly  sound  and 
clean  condition,  even  by  hand-picking  if  necessary.  A  dirty  lot  of 
beans  from  any  locality  injures  not  the  grower  alone  but  casts 
suspicion  on  all  the  product  of  that  place.  In  preventing  this,  asso- 
ciated effort  of  growers  has  accomplished  much. 

Rotation  of  Crops. — It  has  been  the  experience  of  bean  growers 
hitherto  that  many  crops  of  beans  can  be  grown  successfully  on  the 
same  soil  without  great  difference  in  the  yield — that  is,  the  land  does 
not  clearly  show  wear.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  a  bean  crop 
improves  barley,  potatoes  or  other  succeeding  crop.  This  might  be 
expected  from  what  is  now  known  of  the  power  of  the  legumes  to 
fix  atmospheric  nitrogen  by  means  of  their  roots.  Our  best  bean 
soils  are  so  rich  naturally  that  they  are  able  to  endure  a  long 


164  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

cropping  period  and  growers  are  apt  to  look  upon  the  soil  as  a 
constant  factor  and  wish  that  the  weather  could  be  placed  in  the 
same  category. 

VARIETIES  FOR  FIELD  CULTURE. 

The  Lima  Bean. — The  Lima  is  the  great  bean  of  California  so 
far  as  the  outside  world  is  concerned,  because  though  other  beans 
are  grown  everywhere,  a  small  area  of  our  state,  as  already  men- 
tioned, is  especially  adapted  by  its  favoring  local  climate  to  the 
growth  of  this  rather  exacting  variety.  The  variety  grown  is  the  old 
"Large  Lima,"  well  known  to  the  trade  and  well  adapted  to  the 
region,  and  however  popular  the  dwarf  Limas  may  become  as 
garden  varieties  they  do  not  promise  to  supplant  the  old  sort  in  its 
stronghold.  Improved  strains  are  being  developed  by  the  California 
Experiment  Station  in  co-operation  with  Ventura  county  growers, 
and  much  greater  yield  to  the  plant  is  foreshadowed.  Though  the 
Lima  is  a  running  bean  no  support  is  given  it  in  field  culture.  It 
is  safe  and  comfortable  reclining  on  the  dry,  warm  soil,  with  its  ver- 
dure always  freshened  by  the  breezes  of  the  Pacific,  which  lies  in 
plain  sight  of  most  fields.  Thousands  of  acres  are  thus  disposed 
green  and  level  as  a  meadow  to  the  distant  viewer — the  scene  un- 
marred  by  fence  or  other  obstruction,  for  the  fields  are  usually 
subject  to  no  unwelcome  intrusion  except  hot  blasts  of  air  which 
rarely  beat  back  the  ocean  breeze  and  harm  the  plant.  In  most 
years  without  a  drop  of  summer  rain  and  held  in  heart  by  the  in- 
sensible ocean  vapor  and  occasionally  by  fog  and  mist,  the  Lima 
bean  often  yields  the  grower  an  average  of  a  ton  to  the  acre  of  good 
land,  and  sometimes  does  more  than  fifty  per  cent  better  than  that. 
On  large,  uneven  tracts,  the  average  would  of  course  be  less.  In 
1911  in  Los  Angeles  county  1,364  acres  yielded  22,000  sacks — about 
1,300  Ibs.  to  the  acre.  During  recent  years  the  price  of  Lima  beans 
has  been  reduced,  but  there  still  remains  a  narrow  margin,  because 
production  can  be  accomplished  at  less  cost  through  improved 
methods  and  machinery.  There  is  also  an  association  of  Lima  bean 
growers  which  is  assisting  producers  to  secure  all  that  the  market 
will  warrant.  Lima  bean  straw  is  an  important  by-product,  as  it 
sells  readily  to  stockfeeders  at  $4  to  $5  per  ton,  according  to  the 
demand  in  different  years — and  in  a  time  of  scarce  fodder  has  sold 
as  high  as  $15  per  ton  as  a  substitute  for  hay. 

The  Small  White  Bean. — This  is  the  accepted  local  name  for 
the  variety  which  is  called  the  Navy  bean  at  the  east.  The  seed 


OTHER    KINDS    OF    BEANS  165 

was  brought  from  the  state  of  New  York  as  far  back  as  1852.  The 
Small  White  has  a  polished  or  varnished  surface  which  prevents 
rapid  absorption  of  moisture.  This  not  only  especially  fits  it  for 
shipping  by  sea  and  gives  it  great  keeping  quality,  but  it  enables  the 
bean  to  hold  its  form  through  cooking  processes.  Large  quantities 
are  shipped  to  Boston,  where  they  are  used  in  preparing  "Boston 
canned  beans,"  which  are  sold  all  over  the  United  States.  The 
Small  White  Bean  is  chiefly  grown  in  Monterey,  San  Luis  Obispo 
and  Santa  Barbara  counties. 

The  Pea  Bean. — This  is  another  Small  White  bean  which  was 
introduced  into  California  early  in  the  fifties.  The  variety  has  a 
very  thin  transparent  skin  which  admits  moisture  readily  and  is  apt 
to  disintegrate  in  cooking.  The  Pea  bean  is  grown  along  the  Sac- 
ramento river  and  in  Ventura  county,  but  not  in  large  amounts. 

The  Large  White  Bean. — This  variety  is  also  known  as  the 
Lady  Washington.  At  the  east  it  is  rated  in  the  trade  as  a  medium 
bean;  it  is  a  little  larger  than  the  Small  White.  The  seed  was  in- 
troduced from  the  east  in  early  times.  The  variety  is  chiefly  grown 
in  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  river  country  and  in  the  central 
coast  counties. 

The  Bayo  Bean. — There  are  two  varieties  grown:  the  Bayo 
Grande  and  the  Bayo  Chico.  The  former  is  large,  the  latter  small; 
both  are  brown.  The  seed  came  from  Chile  in  1849.  The  Bayo  is 
largely  grown  in  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  river  region. 
There  is  also  a  dark  red  bean  which  was  brought  from  Chile,  and 
usually  named  from  its  color. 

The  Pink  Bean. — This  variety  is  sufficiently  described  by  its 
name.  It  has  been  in  California  so  long  that  its  origin  is  unknown, 
and  our  best  bean  merchants  have  never  seen  it  from  any  other 
source  than  this  state.  It  is  a  first-class  bean,  and  the  citizens  of 
Spanish  descent  prefer  it  to  all  other  varieties,  and  it  is  largely 
grown  for  their  use  in  San  Luis  Obispo  county.  It  is  grown  to  a 
considerable  extent  in  Sacramento  river  lands  and  is  perhaps  the 
most  successful  variety  at  points  in  the  San  Joaquin  valley.  It  holds 
place  also  in  the  southern  coast  district. 

The  Butter  Bean. — This  is  the  local  name  for  what  is  known 
as  the  "Flageolet"  in  France,  whence  the  seed  was  brought  to  this 
state.  It  is  large,  white  and  flattish.  It  is  going  out  of  production 
here,  as  the  seed  is  apparently  running  out,  the  size  being  only  half 
that  of  thirty-five  or  forty  years  ago. 


166  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

The  Black-eye  Bean. — It  is  thought  that  this  variety  came  from 
Virginia.  It  is  grown  in  all  the  leading  bean  districts.  This  and 
others  of  the  "cow  pea"  group  are  grown  to  some  extent,  as  a  cover 
crop  for  plowing  under,  in  the  citrus  orchards,  and  a  seed  crop  is 
also  sometimes  harvested  in  the  citrus  districts. 

The  Soy  Bean. — This  Asiatic  species,  which  has  many  varieties, 
is  grown  to  a  limited  amount  by  Chinese  and  Japanese  on  river 
bottom  and  reclaimed  lands,  both  for  forage  and  food. 

The  Horse  Bean. — A  broad  bean,  chiefly  grown  by  Portuguese 
in  the  San  Francisco  Bay  region;  hardy  and  prolific,  making  free 
winter  growth  where  frosts  are  light;  sometimes  in  demand  for  the 
debasement  of  coffee. 

GARDEN  CULTURE  OF  BEANS. 

Much  that  has  been  said  about  the  field  growth  of  beans  ap- 
plies to  the'garden  culture.  Condition  of  soil  and  time  for  planting 
are  practically  the  same,  and  so  are  the  characters  of  the  growing 
season,  except  that  the  gardener  cares  little  for  the  maturing  of 
his  crop,  but  prefers  a  green  succession.  A  condition  of  late  sum- 
mer moisture,  then,  that  would  be  a  serious  trouble  in  the  field,  is 
an  advantage  in  the  garden.  For  a  product  of  beans  as  a  green 
vegetable,  the  drying  out  which  promotes  maturity  is  to  be  pre- 
vented, and  if  this  is  successfully  done,  either  upon  naturally  moist 
or  irrigated  land,  the  bean  plants  will  continue  their  yield  of  green 
pods  until  frost  cuts  them  down.  As  California  has,  as  a  rule,  a 
very  long  frostless  season,  the  bearing  season  of  green  pluckings 
may  cover  several  months. 

In  frostless  places,  or  in  places  of  light  frosts,  where  the  grower 
affords  slight  protective  covering,  the  bean  continues  its  growth 
and  bearing  into  the  winter  and  vines  of  some  varieties  assert  their 
perennial  character.  Even  where  the  frosts  cut  down  the  top,  some 
of  the  phaseolus  varieties  maintain  their  life  and  start  again  freely 
from  the  old  roots  when  the  spring  warmth  invites  activity. 

The  continued  growth  of  the  bean  late  in  the  fall,  in  the  absence 
of  frost,  sometimes  affords  a  better  late  than  early  crop,  because 
certain  insects  which  destroy  the  early  blossoms  cease  from  their 
labors,  or  because  too  high  heat  no  longer  blights  the  bloom.  It  is 
often  the  reward  of  the  amateur  gardener,  who  promotes  late  growth 
of  his  bean  plants  by  continued  irrigation,  to  gather  ample  supplies 
of  tender  pods  when  less  diligent  growers  have  none.  Midsummer 


GARDEN  CULTURE  OF  BEANS  167 

bean  planting  on  moist  interior  lands  is  also  a  good  practice,  as  it 
gives  the  plant  a  growing  season  in  the  fall  when  the  hot  and  dry 
summer  conditions  are  relaxed. 

The  planting  of  beans  in  frostless  situations  in  the  fall  for  a 
winter  crop  is,  of  course,  a  limited  enterprise,  and  attended  by  con- 
siderable risk,  because  never  having^a  frost,  means  hardly  ever,  and 
yet  good  returns  are  often  made  in  a  few  places  already  designated 
in  the  chapters  on  climates  and  the  planting  season. 

The  winter  preparation  for  field  planting  on  the  light  soils  that 
are  mainly  used  for  that  purpose  will  do  for  the  same  soils  and  situa- 
tions for  garden  growth,  but  where  beans  have  to  go  upon  rather 
heavier  soil  in  regions  of  heavier  rains,  it  is  necessary  to  give  more 
thorough  spring  cultivation  to  overcome  the  compacting  of  the  soil 
by  the  rain,  and  make  it  suitably  mellow  for  the  crop.  For  this 
purpose,  spring  plowing  twice,  the  second  shallower  than  the  first, 
and  good  harrowing  following  the  second  plowing,  are  desirable. 
All  this  work  should  be  clone  when  the  soil  works  freely,  and  only 
then. 

In  rainfall  garden  practice,  where  moisture  is  short,  the  land 
should  lie  in  shape  for  taking  in  water  all  during  the  earlier  part 
of  the  rainy  season,  and  not  be  cropped  nor  left  hard  for  the  spring 
working,  but  where  moisture  is  ample,  the  land  may  carry  first  a 
fall-planted  crop  of  hardy  vegetables  for  winter  use,  provided  this 
crop  is  cleared  away  by  February  and  the  land  put  into  condition  to 
store  up  the  spring  rains  for  the  use  of  the  beans.  This  practice 
depends  upon  the  likelihood  of  the  late  rains  being  generous,  and 
the  soil  being  retentive  enough. 

Bush  Beans. — Varieties  of  this  class  are  hardier  than  most 
climbing  beans  and  are  safely  planted  earlier — perhaps  from  one  to 
two  weeks  usually,  but  they  should  not  be  planted  until  the  soil  be- 
comes warm  and  loses  its  excess  of  water.  For  hand-hoeing  the 
rows  can  be  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  apart,  and  for  horse  cultiva- 
tion two  feet.  About  four  inches  apart  in  the  drill,  and  covered 
from  one  to  two  inches,  according  to  soil  and  season,  is  ordinary 
practice.  The  plants  can  also  be  grown  in  hills.  If  the  ground  is  in 
good  condition  the  seed  can  be  planted  before  the  lighter  frosts  of 
spring  are  all  over,  and  by  slight  covering  they  can  be  carried 
through.  The  bush  varieties  will  endure  more  cold  and  more  heat 
than  the  climbing  sorts,  but  any  considerable  planting  should  wait 
until  the  frost  danger  for  the  locality  is  over.  Later  plantings 


168  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

should  be  made  at  short  intervals,  for  succession  and  irrigation 
must  usually  be  resorted  to  quite  early  in  the  summer,  except  on 
moist  land  or  on  the  immediate  coast. 

Bush  beans  are  usually  divided  into  two  groups :  those  with 
green  pods  and  those  with  waxen,  or  light  yellow  pods.  The  fol- 
lowing are  favorites  in  this  state: 

Early  Mohawk,  hardy  and  early  for  early  crop,  large  flattish 
pods. 

Dwarf  Horticultural,  vigorous  grower,  large  leaves ;  pods 
medium,  curved ;  beans  pale  pink,  marked  with  red. 

Burpee's  Stringless,  green  pod,  early,  straight,  roundish  pod, 
brittle  and  stringless. 

Extra  Early  Valentine,  said  to  be  fit  to  gather  in  thirty-five  to 
forty  days  from  planting,  green  pod,  medium  sized,  fleshy,  keeps 
green  longer  than  most  kinds — a  favorite  in  the  Sacramento  valley. 

Extra  Early  Refugee,  popular  with  early  vegetable  shippers, 
round  pods,  bright  green,  very  productive,  largely  grown  in  Vaca- 
ville  and  other  early  regions. 

Long  Yellow  Six  Weeks,  pods  long,  early,  very  productive, 
excellent  quality;  popular  in  Southern  California. 

Golden  Wax,  early,  strong  grower,  long  pods,  very  brittle  and 
stringless,  popular  in  the  Sacramento  valley,  coast  valleys  and 
southern  California,  where  it  is  commended  as  most  likely  to  come 
through  from  late  planting.  The  Ventura  Golden  Wax  has  the 
reputation  of  being  the  hardiest  of  its  class  against  frost. 

Davis  White  Wax,  broad  pods,  clear  light  yellow,  productive, 
tender  and  delicate  flavor. 

Wardell's  Kidney  Wax,  long,  flat  and  showy  tender  pods, 
strong  grower,  prolific.  Beans  shapely,  pure  white  with  purple 
eye;  early. 

Prolific  Black  Wax,  long  and  large  pods,  golden  color,  very 
productive,  bearing  early  and  through  a  long  season. 

Burpee's  Bush  Lima,  reported  by  California  growers  as  the 
best  of  the  dwarf  Limas. 

Broad  Beans. — These  beans  are  related  to  the  so-called  horse 
bean,  but  by  breeding  have  lost  much  of  the  strong  flavor  of  the 
horse  bean,  and  have  so  increased  in  size  of  the  seed  that  they  are 
several  times  larger  than  the  horse  bean.  In  Europe  they  are 
esteemed  as  a  highly  nutritious  and  palatable  vegetable.  The  seeds 
only  are  eaten  and  are  prepared  for  table  in  much  the  same  manner 


OTHER    VARIETIES  169 

as  Lima  beans.  As  Lima  beans  are  more  delicate  in  flavor  and 
nearly  always  available  in  California  markets  there  is  less  chance  for 
broad  beans  than  elsewhere,  and  yet  the  fact  that  they  are  more 
easily  grown  gives  them  claim  to  attention.  The  plants  are  pro- 
ductive and  will  flourish  in  almost  any  locality.  The  seed  should  be 
planted  about  three  inches  deep  in  double  rows,  eight  inches  between 
the  rows  forming  the  double  line,  four  inches  between  the  plants  in 
the  rows,  and  three  feet  between  the  double  rows.  The  early  forma- 
tion of  seed  can  be  hastened  by  removing  the  terminal  bud  of  the 
plants  when  they  have  reached  the  height  of  between  four  and  five 
feet,  and  have  produced  enough  flowers  to  insure  a  good  crop  of 
pods.  The  Green  Windsor  is  the  best  known  broad  bean. 

Climbing  Beans. — Pole  beans  are  usually  more  susceptible  to 
heat  and  drought  than  the  better  bush  varieties,  and  they  are  dis- 
appointing in  other  ways.  Near  the  coast,  however,  they  may  be 
grown  and  trained  in  any  way  the  grower  pleases,  from  a  six-foot 
staff  to  a  whole  wigwam  of  poles  and  strings.  In  the  catalogues  of 
California  seedsmen  many  good  varieties  for  amateur  trial  are  de- 
scribed. The  best  climbing  bean  for  most  California  situations  is 
the  Kentucky  Wonder,  or  Old  Homestead,  which  bears  a  mass  of 
pods  when  grown  to  a  six-foot  stake.  It  is  quite  hardy  and  can 
be  safely  planted  a  week  or  more  before  many  other  varieties.  It 
is  a  medium  early  bean  and  takes  very  readily  to  the  poles ;  wonder- 
fully prolific,  the  vines  being  actually  loaded  from  top  to  bottom 
with  pods  from  six  to  nine  inches  in  length ;  as  string  beans,  the 
pods  are  nearly  round,  tender  and  very  solid.  The  Case  Knife  and 
the  Asparagus  or  Yard  Long  are  also  excellent  climbing  beans ;  the 
latter  especially  as  a  string  bean. 

Perennial  Beans. — It  is  not  unusual  for  the  California  gardener 
to  find  when  he  is  digging  over  his  bean  ground  in  the  spring  that 
the  old  roots  of  the  preceding  crop  are  not  dead  but  are  making 
new  sprouts.  One  grower  in  Alameda  who  had  this  experience 
was  adventurous  enough  to  save  these  roots  and  got  a  second  year's 
crop  from  them.  Afterwards  he  transplanted  such  roots,  mulched 
them  in  the  winter  and  finally  had  bean  plants  two,  three  and  four 
years  old,  bearing  profusely  and  making  from  two  to  four  vines 
from  each  root,  growing  twelve  feet  high,  and  yielding  heavily. 
The  crowns  of  such  roots  are  often  about  two  inches  in  diameter. 
These  beans  are  usually  of  the  scarlet  runner  class,  though  some  of 
the  white  climbing  forms  have  perennial  roots.  Twenty  years  ago 


170 


CALIFORNIA   VEGETABLES 


the  University  Experiment  Station  distributed  some  of  this  class. 
They  have  not  come  into  common  use,  however,  and  it  is  probable 
that  the  assumption  of  the  perennial  habit  is  more  interesting  to 
the  bean  than  to  the  grower,  although  in  an  amateur's  garden  they 
are  very  interesting  and  useful  in  places  where  frosts  are  over  before 
heat  enough  comes  to  start  the  top  growth  from  the  perennial  roots. 

Transplanted  Beans. — Beans  may  be  easily  grown  early  in 
moist  sand  in  a  protected  place  and  set  out  when  several  inches 
high  when  the  soil  and  air  are  fit  to  receive  them.  The  best  way  to 
get  a  good  start  in  a  family  garden  is  the  method  of  Mr.  Adams, 
described  on  page  136,  by  which  a  whole  hill  is  moved  from  under 
cover  to  open  ground  at  one  operation. 

Growing  Beans  in  the  Irrigated  Garden. — Beans  may  be  irri- 
gated in  any  of  the  ways  described  for  garden  practice,  according 
to  the  character  of  the  soil.  They  will  stand  flooding  of  the  ground, 
if  it  is  done  at  sundown.  They  will  also  grow  well  on  the  ridge 
systems,  either  with  water  above  or  below,  according  to  the  soil. 
Shallow  planting  should  be  done  when  the  ground  is  to  be  kept 
moist  by  irrigation. 


CHAPTER    XV. 
THE  BEET. 

THE  BEET. — Beta  vulgaris. 

French,  betterave ;  German,  runkelrube ;  Dutch  and  Flemish,  betwortel ; 
Danish,  rodbede ;  Italian,  barbabietola ;  Spanish,  remolacha;  Portuguese, 
betarava. 

LEAF-BEET  OF  Swiss  CHARD. — Idem. 

French,  poiree ;  German,  beisskohl;  Dutch  and  Flemish,  snij  beet; 
Danish,  blad  bede ;  Italian,  bieta;  Spanish,  bleda ;  Portuguese,  a  celga. 

The  beet  as  a  garden  vegetable  is  taken  from  the  ground  every 
day  in  the  year  in  California.  It  can  be  sown  at  almost  any  time, 
and  at  all  stages  of  its  growth  is  uninjured  by  any  temperature 
which  is  experienced  in  California  valleys.  Moisture  conditions  do, 
however,  affect  its  growth.  It  is  unwise  to  sow  the  seed  in  cold, 
wet  ground,  but  if  the  seedling  has  taken  hold  it  can  endure  ex- 
tremes of  saturation  or  drought  for  a  long  period,  and  it  is  not 
injured  for  any  purpose  by  standing  where  it  has  grown  for  a  con- 
siderable time  after  it  has  reached  its  first  maturity.  The  beet  is 
counted,  however,  rather  a  coarse  vegetable,  and  would  be  con- 
signed to  rather  a  lowly  place  did  not  its  present  achievements  and 
its  greater  promise  as  a  source  of  sugar  give  it  commanding  im- 
portance. Though  our  people  are  somewhat  chary  about  putting 
the  boiled  beet-root  in  their  table  china,  they  do  not  hesitate  to 
install  in  cut  glass  or  silver  bowls  the  solid  extract  of  beet-root  in 
the  form  of  sugar  cubes  or  granules.  The  industrial  importance 
of  the  beet  includes  also  its  value  and  availability  as  an  auxiliary 
cattle  food,  and  it  is  all  the  more  esteemed  for  that  purpose  because 
in  our  climate  it  needs  no  root-cellar  or  even  earth-covering,  but  is 
pulled  all  days  of  the  year,  fresh  and  succulent,  from  the  site  in 
which  the  seed  was  cast  months  before. 

(1/1) 


172  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

THE  GARDEN  BEET. 

Though,  as  stated,  the  beet  is  hardy  under  all  our  conditions, 
it  needs  for  the  proper  germination  of  its  seed  moist,  warm  ground, 
and  it  makes  rapid  and  tender  growth  with  the  same  soil  conditions. 
In  cold,  wet  soil  or  in  hot,  dry  land,  it  will  grow  slowly  and  will 
be  tough  and  of  inferior  flavor.  Though  it  is  true  that  beets  will 
endure  much  drought,  growing  slowly  and  rooting  deeply  on  land 
where  grain  and  hay  would  fail  and  subsequently,  with  the  coming 
of  the  fall  rains,  assume  more  active  growth  and  reach  large  size 
for  the  winter  feeding  of  stock,  it  is  not  in  that  way  that  tender 
and  sound-flavored  table  beets  can  be  produced.  They  should  make 
rapid  growth  from  start  to  finish,  and  then  they  may  remain  in 
their  places  for  some  time  without  notable  loss  of  quality,  unless 
the  ground  is  heavy,  becomes  saturated  and  retains  water.  In  fact, 
some  growers  on  well-cultivated  upland  loams  claim  that  the  beets 
improve  in  the  soil  and  are  sweetest  and  tenderest  just  before 
sending  up  their  seed  stalks.  In  localities  with  excessive  rains,  it 
is  often  desirable  to  gather  beets  and  pack  them  away  in  dry  sand, 
but  in  most  places  open  air  winter  conditions  do  not  make  this  neces- 
sary. On  the  other  hand,  as  the  seed  may  be  almost  continuously 
planted  if  moisture  conditions  are  arranged,  small  planting  for 
several  successions  should  be  the  rule  in  the  family  or  sale  garden, 
if  long  use  from  one  planting  shows  deterioration. 

Garden  Culture. — Beets  may  be  grown  in  the  hand-hoed  gar- 
den in  rows  twelve  inches  apart,  or  even  nearer  than  that  if  space 
is  precious,  but  rows  for  horse  work  should  be  eighteen  inches  or 
two  feet,  according  as  may  be  necessary  to  agree  with  the  unit  of 
distance  chosen  to  bring  the  rows  of  upright  growers  uniform  dis- 
tances apart  for  ease  of  cultivation.  The  small  varieties  popular  in 
this  state  do  not  need  that  distance  perhaps,  but  all  narrow  spacing 
is  grievous  in  the  use  of  horse  tools. 

The  soil  for  beets  should  be  well  worked  to  allow  natural 
penetration,  for  the  beet  has  a  taproot  of  great  importance  in  its 
development.  The  seed  may  be  soaked  before  planting  if  the 
ground  is  inclined  to  be  dry,  and  should  be  covered  from  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  to  two  inches,  according  as  the  soil  is  heavy  and 
moist  or  light  and  dry.  In  late  planting  the  seed  must  go  down  to 
moisture,  and  there  is  then  little  danger  of  rain  compacting  the 
covering.  As  for  time  of  planting,  it  may  be  done  any  time  when 
the  soil  is  moist  and  warm,  but  never  when  it  is  cold  or  wet.  Seed 


FAVORITE    VARIETIES  173 

may  be  spaced  an  inch  in  the  drill  approximately,  but  while  still 
small  the  plants  should  be  thinned  to  six  or  eight  inches.  The  sooner 
this  is  done  after  the  plants  have  reached  a  height  of  three  or  four 
inches  the  better.  It  is  quite  a  common  practice  to  allow  the  rows 
to  grow  thickly  until  the  thinnings  are  large  enough  for  greens. 
The  practice  injures  the  surviving  beets,  for  they  never  reach  quite 
the  development  they  would  if  they  had  never  been  crowded,  but 
with  some  the  gain  of  the  greens  is  a  compensation. 

Varieties. — The  garden  beets  popular  in  California  for  table 
use  are  all  the  round  or  flat  shapes,  and  all  of  red  color. 

The  Eclipse,  an  old  favorite,  is  still  of  wide  popularity.  It  is 
early  and  of  good  quality,  and  symmetrical,  round  form.  Said  to 
be  better  than  others  for  late  planting. 

The  Extra  Early  Egyptian  is  of  flat,  turnip  shape,  very  deep 
color,  early,  tender  and  fine. 

Morse's  Improved  Blood  Turnip,  especially  selected  for  style 
and  quality,  deep  red,  green  tops. 

Crosby's  Egyptian,  of  flatter  form  than  Early  Egyptian,  good 
for  early  use,  but  maintains  tenderness  well  as  it  gets  larger  size, 
very  bright  clear  red  flesh. 

Edmunds'  Blood  Turnip  is  another  favorite  market  variety, 
round  'and  smooth,  deep  color  and  good  quality. 

Early  Blood  Turnip  is  also  largely  grown.  It  is  round,  good 
form  and  quality. 

Long  Smooth  Blood  is  an  old  standard  variety  for  those  who 
like  beets  for  slicing.  It  roots  deeply  and  stands  drought  well. 

THE  LEAF-BEET  OR  CHARD. 

This  plant  is  a  beet  grown  for  its  foliage  and  not  for  its  root, 
which  is  small  and  branching.  Its  cultivation  is,  however,  exactly 
like  that  of  the  beet  root,  except  that  its  rooting  habit  allows  of 
shallow  tillage,  but  it  enjoys  good  conditions  in  the  soil  and  mani- 
fests its  delight  by  grander  foliage,  which  is  very  desirable  and  is 
used  as  spinach  is.  Chard  is  not  largely  grown  in  California  be- 
cause conditions  are  so  favorable  for  continual  supplies  of  spinach, 
which  is  preferred. 

THE  SUGAR  BEET  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

All  that  has  been  said  in  preceding  chapters  on  California 
climates  and  soils  has  direct  reference  to  the  exceptional  adaptation 


174  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

of  the  state  to  the  growth  of  the  sugar  beet  and  the  manufacture 
of  beet  sugar.  The  vast  area  of  rich,  deep,  loamy  and  easily-worked 
soils,  which  afford  the  plant  deep  rooting,  free  expansion  and  large 
yield  of  rich  beets;  the  equable  climate,  which  insures  ample  sun- 
action,  freedom  from  low  temperature,  and  an  almost  continuous 
growing  season  through  the  year  for  a  hardy  plant  like  the  beet,  and 
thus  provides  for  sugar  factories  a  maximum  working  season  with- 
out protection  of  the  rich,  raw  material  from  freezing — these  are  lo- 
cal advantages  for  beet  growing  and  sugar  making  the  importance  of 
which  it  is  difficult  to  overestimate.  There  are  also  many  incidental 
advantages  and  benefits  in  ground  which  does  not  freeze  and  in  fac- 
tories where  the  absence  of  freezing  temperature  makes  it  unneces- 
sary to  build  for  protection  of  men,  materials  and  machinery,  ex- 
cept from  heat  and  rain. 

Ten  beet-sugar  factories  in  California  produced,  in  1911-12, 
161,300  tons  of  sugar,  from  99,545  acres  of  beets.  Large  as  this 
quantity  is,  it  is  small  compared  with  the  possible  production  in 
California,  as  there  are  seven  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  acres 
perfectly  adapted  to  the  raising  of  sugar  beets.  Allowing  for  proper 
rotation  of  crops,  about  two  hundred  thousand  acres  would  be  avail- 
able each  year— .-capable  of  producing  two  million  five  hundred  thou- 
sand tons  of  beets  and  three  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  tons  of 
sugar. 

The  ten  factories  cited  above  are  located  as  follows :  Alvarado, 
Alameda  county;  Los  Alamitos  and  Huntington  Beach,  Los  An- 
geles county;  Spreckels,  ^Monterey  county;  Betteravia,  San  Luis 
Obispo  county;  Chino,  San  Bernardino  county;  Oxnard,  Ventura 
county;  Hamilton  City,  Glenn  county;  Anaheim  and  Santa  Ana, 
Orange  county.  Several  other  factories  were  not  in  operation  dur- 
ing 1911-1912. 

Comparative  statistics  show  that  the  proportion  of  saccharine 
is  greater  in  the  beets  grown  here  than  in  any  other  locality,  whether 
in  Europe  or  America.  The  plant  itself  becomes  a  more  active 
worker  and  extracts  more  sugar  from  California  soil  and  sunshine 
than  it  does  elsewhere. 

Situations  and  Soils. — Of  the  ten  factories  cited  nine  are  in  the 
coast  region  south  of  San  Francisco,  and  one  in  the  Sacramento 
valley,  but  the  large  area  noted  as  adapted  to  sugar  beet  production 
is  obtained  by  computation  of  our  valley  acreage.  For  the  most 
economical  production  of  uniformly  good  beets,  fairly  level  fields 


PLANTING   AND    CULTIVATION  175 

are  of  great  advantage.  To  get  the  largest  profits  there  must  be 
the  use  of  the  most  capacious  planting,  cultivating  and  harvesting 
appliances,  and  all  these  are  best  suited  to  level  or  gently  sloping 
lands.  As  most  of  these  lands,  except  in  coast  valleys,  lie  in  regions 
of  moderate  rainfall  there  is  seldom  the  need  of  underdrainage,  but 
the  problem  is  rather  one  of  moisture  conservation,  and-  that  is  in 
most  cases  easily  accomplished  by  cultivation,  to  the  extent  required 
by  the  beet  which  roots  deeply  and  draws  its  moisture  from  a  large 
soil  volume.  Where  it  may  be  necessary  to  concentrate  the  rainfall 
of  two  seasons  for  one  crop,  the  method  of  a  constantly  stirred  sum- 
mer fallow,  which  insures  a  crop  of  grain  in  spite  of  low  rainfall, 
will  do  the  same  for  a  crop  of  beets,  providing  the  relatively  deeper 
cultivation  required  by  the  beet  is  given. 

Though  nearly  all  fertile  soils  will  grow  good  sugar  beets  if  well 
tilled  for  moisture  retention  and  for  root  penetration  and  expan- 
sion, a  rich,  sandy  loam,  deeply  worked  and  with  medium  moisture 
conditions,  is  the  ideal  for  the  purpose.  Sandy  soils,  which  dry  out 
in  spite  of  cultivation,  are  available  for  beet  growing  by  careful 
irrigation.  Heavy,  wet  soils  may  be  put  into  condition  by  under- 
drainage and  cultivation,  but  there  are  such  vast  areas  of  soils 
which  will  suit  the  beet  without  either  irrigation  or  drainage,  it  is 
probable  that  improvements  in  these  lines  will  be  left  for  the  future. 
Tillage  for  Beets. — Land  for  beets  should  be  taken  in  hand 
early.  If  it  has  not  been  summer-fallowed  the  previous  summer, 
it  may  receive  a  shallow  plowing  early  in  the  fall,  being  left  rough  to 
receive  the  rainfall.  As  soon  as  the  heaviest  and  coldest  rains  of  the 
season  are  over  in  the  locality  a  deep  plowing  should  be  given,  so 
as  to  secure  a  seed  bed  of  ten  or  twelve  inches  depth  of  stirred  soil. 
This  practice  is  best  for  coast  valleys,  where  spring  rains  after 
the  plowing  are  likely  to  be  sufficient  to  restore  to  the  soil  a  proper 
degree  of  compactness.  In  light,  open  soils,  with  scant  spring  rains, 
the  first  plowing  should  be  deep  and  the  second  shallow  for  fear 
of  leaving  the  lower  strata  too  open.  It  is  often  good  practice  to 
rely  upon  one  good  plowing  early  in  the  winter,  followed  by  the 
use  of  the  chisel  cultivator,  harrow  and  clod-crusher,  to  bring  the 
surface  into  fine  mellow  condition  to  receive  the  seed.  Modification 
of  methods  must  me  made  according  to  local  soil  and  rainfall,  but 
the  condition  to  be  aimed  at  is  deep  stirring,  lower  strata,  moist  but 
not  wet,  surface  fine  and  moisture  near  it,  but  not  disposed  to  bake 
or  crust  with  rains,  which  may  follow  sowing. 


176  CALIFORNIA   VEGETABLES 

Rotation. — Beets  make  a  strong  draft  on  some  components  of 
the  soil,  and  it  is  a  common  experience  that  they  should  not  be 
grown  year  after  year  for  a  long  period,  but  should  take  their  place 
in  a  rotation,  in  the  course  of  which  one  or  two  crops  of  beets 
should  be  followed  by  a  crop  of  grain,  and  that  if  possible  by  a 
leguminous  plant  like  alfalfa  or  an  annual  legume  like  burr  clover 
used  for  pasturage,  and  then  to  beets  again.  Beets  improve  soil 
for  grain,  because  of  the  deep  running  of  the  root,  and  because  beet 
culture  is  not  profitable  without  deep  plowing  and  continuous  sum- 
mer cultivation.  This  deepens  and  cleans  the  land  to  the  manifest 
advantage  of  the  grain  crop,  but  still  the  beet  reduces  the  plant  food 
in  the  soil  and  some  change  of  crop  should  be  made  with  reference 
to  its  restoration,  and  this  is  the  reason  for  the  leguminous  plant 
and  pasturage  if  possible. 

Planting. — Sugar  beets  are  grown  in  drills  about  eighteen  to 
twenty  inches  apart.  Seeding  is  done  with  machines.  Covering 
should  be  as  shallow  as  will  bring  the  seed  into  soil,  which  will 
remain  moist;  depth  depends  upon  earliness  of  sowing,  character 
of  soil,  as  already  explained  in  other  connections.  Sometimes  it  is 
desirable  to  cover  as  deeply  as  two  inches;  sometimes,  and  usually, 
perhaps,  one  inch  or  a  little  less.  In  late  sowings,  when  the  sur- 
face has  become  quite  dry,  an  attachment  to  the  drill  which  pushes 
aside  part  of  the  dry  surface  and  brings  the  seed  into  moist  soil 
without  running  too  deep,  has  been  found  valuable.  The  greatest 
care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  rows  straight.  Possibly  most  beets 
are  grown  in  crooked  rows,  as  it  has  long  been  said  of  corn,  but 
the  whole  after  course  of  the  field  is  improved  by  running  the  drill 
straight.  It  is  undesirable  to  have  a  rain  just  after  planting,  unless 
the  land  is  very  light  and  dry.  If  crust  forms  it  must  be  broken  by 
light  harrowing  or  rolling. 

Cultivation. — Weeds  should  never  be  allowed  to  get  the  start 
of  the  young  beets ;  nor  should  the  soil  be  allowed  to  lock  them  in 
a  hard  surface.  For  this  reason  cultivation  should  begin  as  soon 
as  the  rows  can  be  seen.  Very  effective  cultivators,  or  horse-hoes, 
have  been  designed  by  California  mechanics,  which  make  it  possible 
to  work  two  or  four  rows  at  once  if  the  beets  are  in  straight  equi- 
distant rows.  This  cultivation  beginning  thus  early,  must 
be  continued  at  frequent  intervals,  for  the  reasons  already  fully 
given  in  the  chapter  on  cultivation.  Cultivation  is  absolutely  essen- 
tial to  a  good  beet;  not  only  must  moisture  be  conserved,  but  the 


THINNING    AND    HARVESTING  177 

lower  strata  must  be  kept  reasonably  loose  so  that  the  soil  may  be 
displaced  by  the  expanding  beet-root.  This  is  done  not  by  deep 
summer  cultivation,  but  by  keeping  a  good  surface  mulch  to  pre- 
vent evaporation,  and  the  lower  soil  will  then  keep  itself  in  good 
condition.  All  flattened,  or  knotty,  or  gnarly  beets  show  that  there 
has  been  slackness,  either  in  proper  depth,  in  preparation  of  the 
ground,  or  in  lack  of  cultivation  afterwards,  permitting  deep  drying 
out.  Beets  which  show  signs  of  distress  will  be  discarded  or  dis- 
counted at  the  factory.  The  beet  must  be  symmetrical,  smooth  and 
fine — all  of  which  are  signs  of  thrift  in  a  beet  as  they  are  in  a  well- 
bred  animal. 

Thinning. — Excellence  in  beets  is  also  dependent  upon  each 
having  adequate  soil-room  and  plant  food.  It  is  impossible  to  get 
proper  spacing  by  any  scheme  of  seed  dropping.  It  is  necessary  to 
sow  too  thickly  in  order  to  get  a  uniform  stand;  the  spacing  of  the 
beets  must  be  done  afterward.  By  using  a  narrow  hoe  crosswise  to 
the  rows,  the  plants  can  be  quickly  thinned  to  clumps  or  groups, 
from  which  all  but  the  strongest  plant  are  pulled  by  hand.  Thin- 
ning should  be  begun  when  the  seedlings  are  small — say  from  two 
to  four  leaves.  It  is  easier  to  do  it  well  at  this  stage,  and  it  is  vastly 
better  for  the  beets  which  are  to  stand,  for  it  does  not  displace  the 
soil  nor  disturb  their  rooting,  as  when  it  is  done  too  late.  Beets 
should  stand  eight  to  ten  inches  apart  in  the  row,  according  to  the 
soil.  Where  the  soil  is  very  rich  and  the  beets  likely  to  overgrow 
the  two-pound  average,  which  is  most  acceptable  to  the  factory,  they 
should  be  allowed  to  stand  nearer  in  the  row.  After  thinning,  the 
surface  cultivation  must  proceed  for  weed  cutting  and  surface 
loosening  until  the  beet  leaves  cover  the  ground.  The  field  is  then 
laid  by  until  harvesting. 

Harvesting. — As  the  outer  leaves  of  the  beet  turn  yellow  and 
drop  to  the  ground,  maturity  arrives.  It  is  usual  for  the  factory 
to  notify  the  grower  when  his  crop  is  ready.  The  beet  can  stand 
long  in  the  soil  without  losing  sugar  percentage,  but  the  factory 
cannot  use  all  the  beets  at  the  moment  of  their  readiness,  and, 
therefore,  some  growers  have  to  wait  for  delivery  until  the  opening 
of  the  rainy  season,  and  that  is  not  pleasant  or  profitable.  It  is 
desirable,  therefore,  that  seeding  should  be  done  at  different  times, 
as  each  kind  of  land  in  the  locality  comes  into  condition,  and  thus 
prolong  both  the  harvesting  season  and  the  factory  season. 


178  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES 

Beet  harvesting  is  now  done  cheaply  by  means  of  implements 
and  machines  of  California  design  and  construction,  which  either 
loosen  or  completely  dislodge  the  beet.  Topping,  or  removing  the 
leaves  and  all  the  green  part  of  the  root  grown,  is  done  with  knives, 
though  inventors  have  made  some  promising  progress  in  machines 
for  this  work. 

The  Beet  Season. — As  already  said,  the  beet  is  an  all-the-year 
plant  in  California.  Planting  may  be  done  whenever  the  local  soil 
and  moisture  conditions  warrant.  Some  planting  is  done  as  early 
as  February  in  regions  of  light  rains,  and  the  sugar  factory  season 
opens  in  southern  California  in  July.  In  regions  of  heavier  rains 
planting  is  done  in  April  and  May.  In  all  regions  there  is  consid- 
erable length  to  the  sowing  season,  so  that  succession  in  ripening  is 
possible,  where  there  are  lands  of  different  elevations  and  degrees  of 
moisture.  It  is  possible  to  keep  the  factories  in  operation  nearly 
the  whole  year  without  great  storage  of  beets,  but  this  has  not  been 
clone  so  far. 

Yield. — Very  large  yields  of  sugar  beets  have  been  reported 
with  perfect  truth,  and  larger  sugar  percentages  have  been  attained 
in  California  than  anywhere  else  in  the  world,  but  average  state- 
ments are  a  better  guide  than  extremes.  The  statistics  gathered  by 
the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  show  that  the  ten  factories  ope- 
rating in  1911-12  worked  up  1,037,283  tons  of  beets  which  were  har- 
vested from  99,545  acres  of  land.  The  price  for  the  beets  was,  on  the 
average,  $5.54  per  ton,  and  the  average  yield  was  10.42  tons  per 
acre.  The  average  gross  return  to  the  grower  was,  therefore,  $57.72 
per  acre.  The  cost  of  production  is  variously  estimated  at  from 
$30  to  $40  per  acre,  leaving  a  profit  of  from  $17  to  $27  per  acre.  Of 
course,  some  make  much  more  than  the  average.  There  is  quite  as 
large  an  opening  for  good  farming  in  beet  growing  as  in  any  other 
crop,  and  the  beet  seems  to  know  as  clearly  when  it  is  well  off  and 
gathers  sweets  like  a  bee. 

Beet  Pulp  for  Stock  Feed. — The  use  of  beet  pulp  for  stock  feed- 
ing has  increased  rapidly  during  the  last  few  years,  and  promises  to 
be  as  popular  here  as  in  Europe.  It  is  fed  fresh  and  is  put  down  in 
silos.  It  is  very  cheaply  siloed,  because  it  packs  down  readily  and  it 
seals  itself  up  from  contact  with  the  air  by  the  formation  of  a  sur- 
face crust.  There  are,  however,  many  economic  questions  concern- 
ing the  cost  of  the  pulp,  either  as  it  comes  from  the  factory,  or  dried 


BEETS    FOR   STOCK  179 

or  as  silage  which  are  not  yet  fully  determined,  and  which  it  needs 
systematic  experimentation  to  demonstrate. 

Varieties. — Thus  far  California  has  relied  upon  European  beet 
seed.  We  have  not  yet  brought  into  practice  here  the  exact  methods 
of  testing  and  selecting  the  "mother  beets"  for  seed  production  which 
are  practiced  in  France  and  Germany.  By  this  means  the  sugar- 
contents  have  been  increased  and  shape,  thrift  and  other  charac- 
ters of  the  beet  have  been  advanced.  It  is  probable  that  California 
will  in  due  time  develop  local  seed  supplies  of  the  highest  quality, 
but  efforts  in  that  direction  have  not  yet  succeeded. 

.  Of  the  varieties  chiefly  used  at  the  present  time  by  the  Cali- 
fornia sugar  factories  the  best  information  is  to  be  had  from  the 
managers  who  furnish  to  growers  the  seed  which  in  their  experience 
yields  the  best  results,  and  their  contracts  are  conditioned  upon  the 
use  of  the  seed  they  furnish. 

BEETS  AS  FOOD  FOR  STOCK. 

All  that  has  been  said  about  the  fitness  of  California  soils  and 
climates  to  the  growth  of  the  sugar  beet  is  also  applicable  to  the 
growth  of  beets  for  stock  food.  Early  plantings  of  beets  furnish 
succulent  food  when  the  pastures  yield  but  "dry  feed,"  which  is  the 
local  name  for  grasses  and  clovers  which  make  rich  hay  as  they 
stand  in  the  field.  Though  this  food  is  very  nutritious,  it  is  better 
fitted  for  fattening  purposes  than  for  maintaining  the  milk-flow, 
and  for  this  reason  it  should  be  supplemented  by  succulent  food. 
By  later  planting  of  beets  good  supplies  can  also  be  provided  for 
the  deficiency  of  pasture  growth  which  occurs  when  the  winter 
happens  to  be  colder  or  drier  than  usual.  Thus,  by  planting  from 
February  until  June,  or  even  later  on  moist  bottom  or  irrigated 
land,  the  stock  feeder  can  have  beets  for  his  animals  the  year  round. 

Stock  beets  are  also  useful  as  a  succulent  food  for  poultry. 
By  sowing  in  April  or  earlier,  if  local  soil  conditions  admit,  well- 
grown  beets  can  be  had  for  the  fowls  by  August,  when  it  is  well- 
nigh  impossible  for  them  to  find  any  wild  verdure.  They  will  help 
themselves  to  the  roots  just  as  they  come  from  the  field. 

Preparation  of  the  land  is  the  same  for  stock  beets  as  for  sugar 
beets.  The  plants  must  have  wider  spacing,  both  for  the  rows  and 
for  individual  plants,  according  to  the  size  of  the  variety  grown. 
The  long  red  mangel-wurzel,  which  frequently  reaches  a  weight  of 
seventy  pounds,  and  should  average  half  that  or  more,  needs  room. 


180  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES 

Three  feet  between  the  rows  and  two  feet  between  the  plants  in 
the  row  is  as  little  space  as  should  be  given. 

Growers  of  stock  beets  often  sprout  the  seed  before  planting, 
and  sow  by  hand,  from  five  to  eight  pounds  per  acre,  in  a  shallow 
furrow,  following  a  line  set  by  a  "marker,"  and  cover  with  a  culti- 
vator or  harrow,  finally  smoothing  with  a  plank  clod-crushes  or 
"rubber." 

Summer  cultivation  determines  the  character  of  the  crop  as 
it  does  with  sugar  beets,  and  the  best  cultivators  secure  almost  in- 
credible weights  of  beets  from  rich,  moist  soils.  The  crop  often 
reaches  twice  that  of  sugar  beets,  and  though  the  stock  beets  are 
inferior  in  nutritive  contents,  the  greater  crop  and  the  greater  ease 
with  which  large  beets,  growing  a  good  part  of  their  bulk  above- 
ground,  are  gathered  and  handled  are  held  to  compensate  for  their 
less  nutritive  substance. 

Varieties. — Of  the  many  cattle  beets  of  Europe  three  have 
gained  wide  popularity  in  California :  the  Long  Red  Mangel,  the 
Yellow  Globe  Mangel,  and  the  Golden  Tankard. 

Long  Red  Mangel. — This  variety  is  the  largest  and  produces 
the  heaviest  crops,  and  is  the  best  generally  preferred  by  dairymen 
and  for  hog  feed,  but  it  requires  a  deep,  strong  soil  to  do  well.  A 
rich,  sandy  loam,  a  heavy  black  adobe  or  a  yellow  clay,  will  pro- 
duce great  crops  of  Long  Red  Mangels. 

Yellow  Globe  Mangel. — This  is  medium  in  size,  rutabaga 
shaped,  more  solid  and  less  watery,  and  is  the  best  beet  for  a  light, 
shallow  soil.  All  root  crops,  as  stated  already,  require  a  deep, 
moist  soil,  and  the  richer  the  better.  But  Yellow  Globe  Mangels 
are  recommended  on  a  light  or  gravelly  soil,  but  in  such  case  a  lib- 
eral use  should  be  made  of  old  and  well-rotted  barn-yard  manure, 
well  worked  into  the  soil. 

Yellow  Tankard  Mangel. — This  is  also  called  "Golden  Tank- 
ard." It  is  one  of  the  most  famous  English  varieties.  It  is  very 
neat  and  symmetrical  in  form — cylindrical,  narrowing  abruptly  at 
both  ends.  It  has  yellow  flesh  throughout.  It  reaches  large  size, 
but  can  be  grown  more  thickly  than  the  Long  Red. 

These  Yellow  Mangels  have  gained  rapidly  in  popularity  dur- 
in  the  last  few  years :  first  in  southern  California  and  now  in  the 
north  as  well.  They  are  better  suited  for  calcareous  soils,  which  are 
very  prevalent  in  California,  and  they  endure  drought  better  than 
the  Long  Red. 


CHAPTER   XVI. 
THE  CABBAGE  FAMILY. 

COMMON  CABBAGE. — Brassica  oleracea  capitata. 
French,    chou    cabus,    chou    pomme;    German,    kopfkohl,    kraut;    Dutch, 
slutkool;  Danish,  hoved  kaal ;  Italian  cavolo  cappuccio;  Spanish,  col  repollo ; 
Portuguese,  couve  repolho. 

SAVOY  CABBAGE. — Brassica  oleracea  bullata. 

French,  chou  de  Milan ;  German,  Savoyerkohl ;  Dutch,  savooikool ;  Italian, 
cavolo  de  Milano;  Spanish,  col  de  Milan;  Portuguese,  saboia. 

BRUSSELS  SPROUTS. — Idem. 

French,  chou  de  Bruxelles;  German,  Briisseler  sprossen-wirsing;  Dutch, 
spruitkool;  Danish,  rosenkaal;   Italian  cavolo  a  germoglio. 
CAULIFLOWER. — Brassica  oleracea  botrytis. 

French,  chou-fleur;  German,  blumenkohl ;  Dutch,  bloemkool;  Italian, 
cavol-flore;  Spanish,  coliflor;  Portuguese,  couve-flor. 

BROCCOLI. — Idem. 

French  choux  brocolis,  chou-fleur  d'hiver ;  German,  spargelkohl ;  Danish, 
asparges  kaal;  Italian,  cavol  broccolo;  Spanish  broculi. 

BORECOLE  OR  KALE. — Brassica  oleracea  acephala. 
French,   choux  verts;   German,   winterkohl;   Dutch,  boerenkool;    Italian, 
cavolo  verde;  Spanish,  coles  sin  cogollo. 

COLLARDS. — Idem. 

Jersey  Kale;  Thousand  Headed  Cabbage  or  Oregon  Kale;  also  Marrow 
Kale  (chou  mcellier) — grown  for  live  stock  and  poultry. 

Other  species  of  brassica,  grown  for  fleshy  stems  or  roots,  rather  than 
for  esculent  foliage,  will  be  classed  as  "turnips"  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 

California  has  a  vast  capacity  as  a  supply  region  for  esculents 
of  the  cabbage  family.  The  climate  favors  production  and  ship- 
ment at  a  time  when  the  eastern  markets  have  only  stored  cabbage, 
and  California  cauliflower  is  harvested  in  splendid  size  and  quality 
all  through  the  winter  months,  so  that  the  crop  is  disposed  of  be- 
fore the  eastern  grower  can  trust  his  small  plants  to  the  open  air. 

(181) 


182  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

Some  years  when  there  have  been  low  freight  rates,  or  a  partial 
failure  in  eastern  production,  there  have  been  very  large  shipments 
in  direct  competition  with  the  eastern  grown  cabbage  in  the  early 
autumn,  and  money  has  been  made  in  selling  California  cabbage, 
not  as  an  early  vegetable,  but  at  prices  which  sauerkraut  factories 
were  willing  to  pay.  The  eastern  production  has,  however,  been 
more  intelligently  carried  on  during  recent  years,  and  California 
producers  have  less  opportunity  in  the  farther  east.  In  the  great 
central  region  of  the  country,  however,  California  vegetable  ship- 
pers find  a  large  market,  and  growing  is  done  on  a  considerable 
scale,  but  the  aggregate  is  only  a  small  fraction  of  what  the  state 
could  easily  produce. 

The  largest  cabbage  producing  regions  are  the  sandy  loam 
uplands  bordering  San  Francisco  on  the  south,  the  lowlands  of 
Santa  Clara  county,  the  reclaimed  islands  of  the  Sacramento  and 
San  Joaquin  rivers,  and  the  valleys  of  southern  California,  both 
on  the  coast  and  in  the  interior.  The  last  named  are  the  largest 
producing  districts  for  overland  shipment,  although  the  central 
parts  of  the  State  often  export  largely. 

Cabbage  is  produced  both  in  large  areas  wholly  given  to  the 
plant  and  by  planting  between  young  fruit  trees,  both  in  rainfall 
and  irrigated  districts.  As  the  cabbage  is  very  largely  a  winter 
crop  in  California,  the  water  which  it  requires  comes  free  from  the 
clouds  or  at  low  rates  from  the  irrigating  ditches.  The  chief  objec- 
tion to  the  crop  is  the  great  fluctuation  in  value  from  year  to  year. 
It  is  hardly  worth  while  at  $15  per  ton,  and  very  profitable  at  $30 
to  $40  per  ton,  and  the  planting  is  large  or  small,  according  to  the 
preceding  year's  experience  in  selling,  and  this,  of  course,  largely 
influences  the  price  of  the  new  crop.  An  average  crop  of  cabbage 
would  be  perhaps,  four  tons  to  the  acre  and  the  average  value  $20 
per  ton  or  $80  gross  value  per  acre.  The  cost  at  current  rates  for 
labor  would  be  about  $30  per  acre. 

The  cabbage  crop  is  chiefly  grown  for  winter  and  spring  gather- 
ing. Interior  southern  situations  produce  heads  ready  for  shipping  as 
early  as  February,  and  the  shipment  continues,  including  the  later 
coast  regions  in  southern  and  central  California,  until  April  or  later. 
Thus  California  is  able  to  reach  the  markets  at  the  East  when  the 
storage  houses  of  Eastern  regions  are  emptied  of  cabbage  and  the 
sauerkraut  barrels  run  low  and  to  receive  whatever  high  prices 
may  be  available  at  that  time  of  the  year. 


THE    CABBAGE  183 

California  cauliflower  is  chiefly  shipped  to  distant  markets 
from  November  to  February — the  length  of  the  season  being  de- 
termined by  the  character  of  the  rainy  season,  which  if  very  wet 
may  put  the  late  crop  out  of  shipping  condition ;  also  by  the  sup- 
plies available  from  Florida,  etc. 

Although  the  state  is  so  well  suited  to  produce  all  the  plants  of 
the  cabbage  family,  the  common  cabbage  is  the  only  one  which  is 
widely  grown  by  small  growers  for  home  supplies.  It  is  the  hardi- 
est of  the  group  under  neglect  or  drought,  it  is  true,  but  there  is 
not  so  much  difference  as  some  imagine.  The  cauliflower  has,  for 
instance,  the  reputation  of  being  hard  to  grow,  but  there  is  really 
no  difficulty  about  it  if  proper  effort  is  made,  as  will  be  described 
later. 

THE  CABBAGE. 

The  cabbage  can  be  grown  everywhere  in  California  by  select- 
ing that  season  of  the  year  which  furnishes  the  adequate  moisture 
and  moderate  temperature  which  best  suits  its  nature.  These  re- 
quirements adapt  it  well  to  winter  growth  generally  in  California 
except  in  the  frostiest  places,  and  give  the  plant  a  longer  season 
and  a  greater  attainment  in  weight  in  regions  of  rich  soils  open  to 
coast  influences.  It  does  not  resent  fogs  and  cold  winds,  and  thrives 
directly  upon  the  coast  as  well  as  in  coast  valleys.  In  the  interior 
it  reaches  its  best  estate  on  bottom  lands,  but  will  succeed  on  plains 
and  uplands  with  enough  moisture  by  irrigation  to  supplement  the 
rainfall,  but  without  irrigation  it  is  often  disappointing  even  though 
it  be  started  early  enough.  Cabbage  is  sometimes  a  very  profitable 
winter  crop  in  young  orchards  in  southern  California. 

Soil. — The  cabbage  does  well  on  heavy  soil,  and  it  does  not 
object  to  alkali — if  it  is  not  too  strong.  It  delights  in  copious  treat- 
ment with  stable  manures.  For  quick  fall  growth,  for  early  win- 
ter maturity,  such  soil,  if  moist  enough  by  rainfall  or  irrigation, 
will  bring  it  along  rapidly  while  the  autumn  heat  is  ample.  For 
later  fall  planting  to  reach  early  spring  maturity,  a  warmer,  lighter, 
well-drained  soil  or  a  raised  bed  will  push  full  growth  in  a  month 
or  six  weeks  less  time  than  heavy  soil  in  a  rainy  region,  which  is 
likely  to  be  cold  and  water-soaked.  But  the  cabbage  sometimes 
repays  great  kindness  by  growth  to  bursting  or  cracking  of  the 
head.  Care  should  be  had  against  over-growth  for  this  reason. 
Cracking  can  be  prevented  by  giving  heads  which  threaten  it  a  pull, 


184  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

or  a  cut  through  the  roots  with  a  spade,  so  as  to  lessen  its  riotous 
living  by  partial  arrest  of  its  supplies. 

Aside  from  considerations  of  rapid  development,  however,   it 
should  be  said  that  the  cabbage  will  stand  a  good  deal  of  winter    f 
water  and  will  even  go  through   a  period  of  saturated   soil  and  / 
standing  water,  making  good  heads  when  better  growing  conditions 
follow. 

The  Time  to  Plant. — These  points  on  soil  condition  also  sug- 
gest different  times  of  planting  in  different  localities,  according  to 
what  may  be  reasonably  anticipated  in  the  way  of  heat  and  moisture. 
Even  in  the  same  locality  there  will  also  be  different  dates  of  suit- 
ability, according  to  the  character  of  the  current  season.  The  best 
practice  is  to  have  plants  available  in  different  seed  beds  and  to 
plant  out  in  succession  the  thriftiest  plants  at  hand  at  such  times 
as  the  season  may  show  fitness.  Planting  by  the  calendar  is  not 
usually  intelligent  practice  in  California,  as  has  been  already  stated. 

Growing  plants. — It  is  wise  in  most  parts  of  California  to  start 
plants  in  a  seed  bed  from  August  to  October,  irrigating  the  ground 
well  to  guard  against  drying  out  on  land  not  naturally  moist.  In 
the  warmer  coast  regions  good  plants  can  be  grown  at  this  time  of 
the  year  in  the  open  ground.  Field  growth  of  cabbage  plants  with 
irrigation  in  southern  California  is  described  in  this  way: 

The  land  is  furrowed  out  at  various  widths,  depending  on  whether 
the  wheel  hoe  or  horse  cultivator  is  used  in  the  after  cultivating,  and 
after  the  furrows  have  been  made  a  light  planker  is  drawn  across  the 
field  lengthwise  over  the  ridges,  which  makes  a  fine  uniform  surface  on 
which  to  sow  the  seed.  This  is  done  with  a  seed  drill,  and  a  row  is 
made  on  each  edge  of  the  ridge,  thus  making  a  double  row  with  a  furrow 
on  each  side  for  irrigation.  Unless  the  land  is  very  moist  when  the  seed 
is  sown,  water  is  turned  into  the  furrows  at  once  and  the  moisture  rises 
by  capillarity  to  the  top  of  the  ridge,  thus  giving  the  seed  a  chance  to 
germinate  at  once.  As  with  lettuce,  if  the  seed  is  too  thickly  sown  it  is 
thinned  out  so  that  the  plants  will  grow  stocky.  As  soon  as  the  plants 
are  large  enough  they  are  transplanted  into  the  open  field,  which  has 
been  prepared  as  for  the  seed  rows,  except  that  the  rows  are  always  wide 
enough  for  horse  cultivation  and  only  one  row  is  set  on  the  edge  of  the 
furrow. 

In  the  interior,  where  temperature  extremes  are  liable  to  be 
greater,  a  cold  frame,  or  covered  seed  bed,  may  be  used  to  protect 
the  young  plants  against  hot,  dry  winds.  In  small  garden  practice 
the  use  of  a  seed-box  is  often  handier.  Plants  should  be  given 


FIELD    CULTURE    OF    CABBAGE  185 

space  enough  to  grow  thriftily  and  should  be  transplanted  to  the 
field  when  conditions  are  right  for  planting  out  in  the  locality. 

Plants  started  in  August  and  September  may  be  planted  in  the 
field  as  soon  as  they  are  strong  enough,  when  an  early  winter  crop 
is  expected,  for  they  will  be  headed  up  well  from  January  to  March. 
Where  this  is  not  favored  by  the  local  climate,  it  is  still  advisable  to 
have  early  grown  plants,  and  in  garden  practice  they  can  be  several 
times  transplanted  and  thus  kept  small  and  stocky  for  planting  out 
when  soil  and  weather  are  right  for  it.  Where  the  early  winter  is 
apt  to  have  quite  severe  frosts,  plants  started  in  the  fall  in  the  open 
air  can  be  transplanted  to  cold  frames  until  this  danger  is  past. 

For  late  winter  and  spring  planting,  plants  may  be  started  later, 
say  in  January,  but  then  in  some  places  the  hot-bed,  or  other  form 
of  gentle  bottom  heat  described  in  the  chapter  on  propagation,  is 
desirable.  Care  must,  however,  always  be  taken  not  to  use  too  high' 
heat  with  cabbage  plants,  and  for  usual  California  conditions  a  seed- 
bed, with  the  soil  made  light  enough  for  good  drainage,  and  with 
protection  from  cold  winds  as  afforded  by  a  fence  or  buildings,  is 
usually  coddling  enough  for  cabbages.  If,  however,  the  plants  are 
grown  with  heat  they  should  be  first  transplanted  to  a  cold  frame,  or 
a  protected  bed,  for  hardening  before  they  are  taken  to  open  ground. 

Preparation  of  Cabbage  Ground. — Aside  from  generous  ma- 
nuring ;  for  it  is  hard  to  make  ground  too  rich  for  the  cabbage,  a  good, 
deep  working  of  the  soil  will  show  itself  in  the  crop.  For  fall  plant- 
ing it  is  not  desirable  to  give  the  surface  as  fine  a  polish  as  is  neces- 
sary for  seed  sowing,  because  it  will  be  all  the  more  liable  to  puddle 
and  crust  with  the  rains.  If  the  plant  is  well  firmed  in  fine  soil,  it 
will  take  hold  well  and  the  interspaces  will  be  more  receptive  if  left 
a  little  open.  Subsequent  cultivation  will  fine  it  sufficiently. 

In  special  fertilizing  for  cabbage  in  addition  to  free  use  of  farm 
manure,  worn  soils  can  be  enriched  with  400  to  500  Ibs.  of  super- 
phosphate and  200  Ibs.  of  kainit,  harrowed  in  before  planting,  and 
from  200  to  400  Ibs.  nitrate  of  soda  is  given  divided  into  two  to  three 
applications,  according  to  quantity  allowed.  If  as  much  as  4  cwt. 
of  nitrate  of  soda  is  given  to  the  acre,  the  first  portion  may  be  ap- 
plied when  it  is  noticed  the  plants  are  beginning  to  catch  on,  the 
next  a  month  after,  and  the  last  dressing  three  weeks  later.  This 
usually  produces  a  marked  effect  on  the  crops. 

Planting  Out. — Cabbages  are  usually  grown  in  the  field  in 
rows  two  and  a  half  to  three  feet  apart ;  laid  out  with  a  marker,  the 


186  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

plants  being  distanced  about  fifteen  inches  in  the  rows.  Planting  is 
done  with  a  dibble,  and  a  man  can  plant  out  four  to  eight  thousand 
a  day,  according  to  his  expertness,  if  he  has  a  boy  to  drop  plants 
for  him.  The  earth  should  be  pressed  firmly  about  the  roots  with 
the  dibble. 

Planting  with  a  trowel  can  be  very  rapidly  done  in  this  way. 
Get  a  new  mason's  trowel  about  six  inches  wide  and  twelve  inches 
long  coming  to  a  point.  Cut  off  one  or  two  inches  of  the  point, 
making  it  round  on  the  grindstone.  Put  the  trowel  down  in  the 
soil  the  whole  length,  pull  it  over  toward  you,  put  in  the  plant,  take 
out  the  trowel,  then  step  on  the  soil  near  the  plant  to  make  it  firm. 

If  the  seed-bed  is  sandy  enough  and  is  allowed  to  become  a 
little  dry,  the  plants  can  be  lifted  readily  without  losing  roots.  Large 
bunches  of  plants  when  taken  to  the  field  should  be  protected  from 
sun  and  wind  by  a  wet  sack,  and  dropping  should  not  go  far  ahead 
of  the  planting. 

Early  planting  in  anticipation  of  rains  may  be  surer  to  hold  on 
if  a  little  water  is  used  in  planting  if  the  ground  is  inclined  to  be  dry. 
On  irrigated  ground,  which  is  given  a  good  soaking  before  plowing 
for  fall  planting,  this  may  not  be  necessary,  but  subsequent  irriga- 
tion must  be  given  in  time  if  rains  are  delayed,  for  the  plants  must 
not  be  allowed  to  stop  growing. 

Planting  out  on  irrigated  ground  after  the  land  has  been  pre- 
pared as  just  described  for  field  growing  of  plants,  can  be  done  in 
this  way : 

Have  plants  of  good  size  and  two  men  to  the  row:  one  with  a  long- 
handled  spade  to  open  a  place  along  the  edge  of  the  furrow  by  inserting 
the  spade  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees  and  without  withdrawing  it, 
but  simply  raising  it  up  until  the  other  man,  who  carried  the  plants  in 
a  pail  which  had  a  little  water  in  the  bottom,  could  slip  a  plant  under  the 
spade,  when  by  a  deft,  quick  movement  the  spade  could  be  withdrawn 
and  the  soil  allowed  to  fall  upon  the  roots,  when  the  man  with  the  spade 
was  careful  to  step  on  the  plant  just  over  the  roots  and  thus  firm  the 
earth.  By  having  the  proper  force  of  men  employed  to  get  the  plants 
from  the  seed  bed  to  the  field,  so  that  the  men  planting  could  proceed 
without  hindrance,  it  is  astonishing  how  rapidly  the  plants  can  be  set; 
and  by  choosing  the  after  part  of  the  day  and  turning  the  water  in  right 
after  each  row  wa's  planted,  the  plants  receive  scarcely  any  check  by 
removal. 

Field  planting  by  machinery  as  practiced  to  some  extent  in  the 
eastern  states,  is  not  prevalent  in  California. 


-CABBAGE  FOR  STOCK  FEED  187 

Cultivation. — Cabbages  must  be  kept  well  cultivated  to  reach 
their  best  estate.  Early  cabbages  will  head  in  two  and  a  half  to 
four  months,  according  to  weather  and  soil  conditions,  and  size  will 
depend  much  upon  cultivation  in  connection  with  soil  richness  and 
adequate  moisture.  Hardly  any  plant  delights  more  in  soil  stirring. 
Rapid  growth  during  the  winter  also  gives  the  plant  the  advantage 
over  the  lice  or  aphis,  which  sap  the  life  of  unthrifty  plants,  and  is 
worse  on  late-planted  cabbages  because  of  the  dry,  hot  weather 
they  are  likely  to  encounter. 

Harvesting. — The  cabbage  field  is  usually  cut  over  for  a  win- 
ter shipment  three  times  in  about  six  weeks,  and  then  the  ground  is 
cleared  up  and  put  in  shape  for  a  summer  crop. 

Cabbage  for  Stock  Feed. — In  field  growth  of  cabbage  all  im- 
perfect heads  are  used  for  cow  feed  and  if  fed  right  after  milking 
and  not  in  too  large  quantities,  are  said  not  to  taint  the  milk.  They 
should  be  fed  in  connection  with  some  dry  feed.  Very  often  cabbage 
can  be  grown  to  advantage  especially  for  cow  feed.  Planted  out  in 
February  or  March  they  would  be  fit  for  use  by  the  latter  part  of 
June,  just  about  the  time  that  the  grass  gets  dry  and  cows  want 
something  juicy  to  keep  up  the  flow  of  milk.  In  their  use,  however, 
care  must  be  taken  to  strip  them  of  any  decaying  leaves,  as  nothing 
will  impart  a  bad  taste  to  milk  and  butter  quicker  than  the  use  of 
decaying  vegetable  matter  of  any  kind.  On  moist  land  late  cabbages 
are  considerably  grown  for  poultry  and  can  be  pulled  for  them  all 
through  the  dry  season. 

Varieties  of  the  Cabbage. — Of  the  many  varieties  of  cabbage 
only  a  few  are  largely  grown  in  California. 

Early  Jersey  Wakefield  is  the  earliest  cabbage  and  is  widely 
popular.  It  makes  up  in  earliness  for  any  lack  in  size.  Heads 
pyramidal  in  shape  having  a  blunted  or  rounded  peak. 

Early  Spring:  this  is  the  local  name  of  a  variety  grown  by 
market  gardeners  around  San  Francisco  instead  of  Early  Jersey 
Wakefield,  as  it  makes  a  little  larger  head. 

Early  Winningstadt :  follows  Jersey  Wakefield  in  maturity; 
pointed  shape ;  head  compact,  firm,  and  heavy.  Very  popular  in 
southern  California,  heading  uniformly  in  the  hottest  weather. 

All-Head  Early :  the  earliest  of  the  large,  flat  varieties  and  the 
largest,  uniform  growth  and  good  for  a  long  season. 

Mammoth  Drumhead :  head  thick  and  broad,  quite  flat  on  top ; 
a  standard  late  variety  reaching  the  largest  size. 


188 


CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 


Flat  Dutch :  very  widely  grown  as  a  late  cabbage ;  head  large, 
round,  and  solid,  flat  on  top ;  very  sure  header  and  good  keeper. 

Holland  or  Danish  Ball-Head :  very  late,  not  large  but  very 
firm  and  round  head,  stands  in  the  field  a  long  time;  popular  for 
Eastern  shipment  and  for  winter  keeping. 

Surehead:  large,  round,  flattened  heads  of  good  texture;  good 
for  shipping;  a  long  keeper,  good  for  a  standard  crop. 

THE  SAVOY  CABBAGE. 

The  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  Savoy  varieties  is  their 
crimped  leaves.  They  are  held  to  be  somewhat  milder  in  flavor 
than  the  common  cabbage.  Their  culture  is  precisely  the  same  as 
of  the  common  cabbage.  They  are  very  little  grown  in  California, 
but  are  desirable  in  giving  variety  to  the  home  garden  supply,  and 
sometimes  profitable  in  local  markets.  The  American  Drumhead 
Savoy  is  a  good  variety. 

BRUSSELS  SPROUTS. 

Brussels  sprouts  require  considerably  longer  to  reach  maturity 
than  the  cabbage,  as  the  little  rosettes  have  to  develop  at  the  bases 
of  the  leaves  after  the  latter  are  grown.  The  sprouts  appear  first 
at  the  lower  part  of  the  stem  and  appear  later  above,  thus  giving 
many  cuttings  from  the  same  stems.  The  crown  of  leaves  at  the 
top  should  not  be  removed  until  the  stem  has  done  its  work.  In 
California  the  sprouts  are  taken  from  the  stems  in  the  places  where 
they  grow,  as  our  winter  does  not  require  taking  up  the  plants  and 
storing  them  under  protection  for  the  winter  "sprouting."  This,  of 
course,  is  a  great  advantage. 

The  plants  are  quite  hardy  and  in  most  parts  of  California  bring 
their  crop  in  the  winter  from  plants  set  out  in  succession  during  the 
previous  spring  and  summer.  They  do  best  in  the  cool,  summer 
climate  of  the  coast.  Wherever  grown  they  must  have  abundant 
moisture  all  summer.  The  culture  is  the  same  as  for  cabbage  except 
as  to  their  longer  season  of  growth,  which  has  been  noted.  The 
"Improved  Half-Dwarf"  is  the  variety  mostly  grown. 

CAULIFLOWER. 

The  cauliflower  is  one  of  the  grandest  vegetables  in  California.  It 
attains  large  size  and  superb  quality,  but  it  is  not  universally  grown, 
as  is  the  cabbage,  because  it  is  rather  more  tender  and  exacting  and 


CAULIFLOWER   GROWING  189 

more  rebellious  under  neglect  or  deprivation.  While  it  is  perfectly 
simple  and  easy  for  a  person  with  any  joy  and  zeal  in  gardening 
to  grow  a  grand  cauliflower,  the  lack  of  these  qualities  will  yield 
distressing  failures.  He  may  busy  himself  with  a  fair  sort  of  cab- 
bages, but  his  cauliflowers  will  point  gaunt  ringers  at  him  instead 
of  nestling  down  in  tight  masses  of  snowy  curds,  as  if  to  shame  him 
for  his  ill-treatment  of  them.  For  this  reason  cabbages  are  seen 
everywhere  and  cauliflowers  seldom,  except  in  the  market  gardens 
or  in  the  fields  where  grown  for  distant  shipment,  which  is  about 
half  as  large  of  cauliflower  as  of  cabbage. 

The  growth  of  the  cauliflower  is  in  the  main  the  same  as  the 
cabbage  except  that  a  little  higher  heat  and  greater  protection  are 
needed  for  the  young  plants  and  a  little  more  diligent  cultivation 
and  faithful  attention  to  moisture  supply  for  the  later  growth.  The 
writer's  observation  is  that  most  cases  of  failure  with  cauliflowers 
are  attributable  to  delay  in  starting  the  plants  and  planting  out  too 
late,  and  to  insufficient  or  intermittent  moisture  supply.  Summer 
heading  of  cauliflower  is  difficult  unless  the  plants  are  started  in  the 
seed  beds  in  the  winter  and  planted  out  early  in  the 
spring,  for  a  spring  start  from  the  seed  is  apt  to  amount 
to  little.  Winter  heading  is  surer  if  the  plants  are  in  the 
seed  beds  by  June  and  in  the  ground,  properly  irrigated  and  worked, 
in  August.  Besides  the  error  of  starting  at  wrong  times,  many 
plantings  go  wrong  toward  the  end  of  their  course,  through  lack  of 
work  and  water  on  the  home  stretch.  In  the  milder  regions  it  is 
possible  to  start  so  early  that  less  attention,  perhaps,  has  to  be  given 
to  watering,  but  where  the  local  climate  requires  spring  planting 
the  reason  for  failure  is  generally  to  be  seen  in  the  hard,  dry  ground 
on  which  the  plants  strive  in  vain  to  answer  the  grower's  expecta- 
tions. 

Soil. — Like  the  cabbage,  the  cauliflower  likes  good,  rich  soil 
and  plenty  of  water ;  coarse,  long  manure  answers  the  purpose  of  a 
fertilizer  very  well  if  the  soil  is  heavy;  if  applied  on  the  surface, 
either  on  light  or  heavy  soil,  it  keeps  the  ground  loose  and  the  water 
soaks  through,  and  thus  the  soil  is  always  moist. 

Situation. — The  cauliflower  is  less  hardy  than  the  cabbage,  and 
where  there  is  a  choice  of  situations  in  the  garden,  it  should  be  given, 
for  winter  growing,  the  one  which  is  warmer  and  more  protected. 
It  also  resents  heat  which  a  cabbage  will  endure,  and  for  summer 
growing  will  be  benefited  by  partial  shade. 


190  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

Growing  Plants. — There  is  a  wide  difference  in  practice  in  dif- 
ferent regions.  On  irrigated  ground  in  the  foothills  seed  is  sown 
in  the  open  ground  in  June  or  July,  by  making  the  soil  as  fine  as 
possible;  sow  the  seeds  and  cover  with  a  slight  coat  of  well-rotted 
manure ;  keep  well  wet  down.  This  prevents  drying  out  and  harden- 
ing of  the  ground  and  the  plants  come  along  finely.  Similar  practice 
is  followed  in  regions  of  little  frost  in  other  parts  of  the  state  at 
different  times  from  July  to  September,  for  winter  cutting.  As 
eastern  shipments  of  cauliflower  continue  from  December  through 
the  winter,  early  growth  of  plants  is  necessary,  and  the  fall  weather 
is  so  warm  that  the  seed-bed  only  needs  a  little  sunshading  and 
ample  moisture. 

In  colder  parts  of  the  state,  as  for  example  in  small  valleys 
liable  to  sharp  frosts,  some  seasons  favor  fall-grown  plants,  others 
do  not,  and  though  it  is  always  advisable  to  have  them  for  small 
plantings  by  those  who  delight  in  taking  the  chances  on  early  things, 
January  or  February  planting  in  a  hot-bed  for  spring  and  summer 
growth  must  be  the  main  practice.  Hot-bed  plants  should  be  grown 
at  rather  a  low  temperature  and  transplanted  to  a  cold  frame  or 
other  place  under  some  cover  to  harden  before  planting  out.  Young 
plants  must  not  be  so  wet  as  to  "damp-off"  and  they  should  not  be 
huddled  together  as  closely  as  cabbages  may  be. 

After-treatment. — Field  growth  of  cauliflower  is  like  that  of 
cabbage,  though  for  winter  growth  one  must  be  sure  of  a  little 
milder  exposure.  Planting  out  during  the  winter  must  be  done  with 
due  regard  to  the  fact  that  the  cauliflower  is  a  more  tender  plant, 
and  extra  care  must  be  had  to  plant  when  the  soil  is  in  proper  con- 
dition of  warmth  and  moisture.  Fall  planting  requires  due  moisture 
and  the  assurance  of  it  is  to  push  the  plant  along  rapidly. 

Garden  Practice. — Amateurs  who  have  become  discouraged 
over  growing  cauliflower  are  advised  to  try  the  method  of  Mr.  Ira 
W.  Adams,  of  Potter  Valley,  being  sure  they  are  faithful  in  all 
points  before  they  conclude  that  this  vegetable  must  be  bought,  not 
grown.  Mr.  Adams'  experience  was  in  a  small  valley  where  frosts 
are  rather  sharp  and  where  fall  planting  is  seldom  satisfactory. 

About  the  middle  of  February  throw  into  a  snug  heap  a  lot  of  fresh 
horse  manure  mixed  with  short  straw  and  leaves.  After  standing  a  few 
days  to  heat,  throw  it  over  and  let  it  remain  a  day  or  two ;  then  make  it  into 
a  compact  heap  (on  the  south  side  of  the  barn),  some  three  or  four  feet  in 
depth  and  about  twice  the  surface  required  for  the  seed-bed.  Tread  it  down 
well.  On  this,  place  three  or  four  inches  of  good  soil  made  light  and  rich 


GARDEN    PRACTICE  191 

with  fine,  well-rotted  manure ;  some  leaf  mold,  sand,  and  a  very  little  ashes  is  a 
very  valuable  addition.  Do  not  sift  the  dirt  nor  have  it  too  fine.  This  seed- 
bed must  be  protected  from  frost  and  cold  rain,  as  well  as  cold  days  and 
nights,  by  a  cover  of  grass  or  muslin;  muslin  answers  every  purpose,  is 
cheaper,  easier  handled,  and  does  not  draw  the  plants  up  weak  and  spindling, 
as  glass  often  does. 

From  time  to  time,  if  the  weather  continues  cold,  throw  around  the 
seed-bed  fresh  horse  manure  sometimes  to  the  depth  of  four  feet  or  more, 
leaving  only  the  front  side  exposed  to  the  sun.  The  heat  generated  and 
escaping  from  this  manure  serves  to  keep  the  temperature  around  the  bed 
several  degrees  higher  than  it  would  have  otherwise  been.  When  the  plants 
are  two  or  three  inches  high,  transplant  to  another  rich  bed  without  any 
bottom  heat,  set  the  plants  three  inches  apart  and  keep  covered  as  little  as 
possible  in  order  to  harden  them.  Be  sure  to  keep  both  seed-beds  always 
well  moistened  (not  wet),  with  lukewarm  water.  A  little  weak  manure 
water  occasionally  is  very  beneficial. 

When  the  plants  are  six  or  seven  inches  high,  transplant  to  open  ground 
on  a  cloudy  day  if  possible,  or  just  at  night,  giving  each  plant  a  cup  of  water. 
The  ground  should  be  prepared  in  the  best  possible  manner  and  made  very 
rich  with  manure  thoroughly  decomposed.  Horse,  cow,  hog,  and  chicken 
manure  mixed  as  good  as  any.  Put  the  plants  three  feet  (or  nearly  so)  apart, 
to  give  plenty  of  room  for  cultivation,  which  should  be  done  once  a  week  at 
least  twice  is  better,  and  hoe  them  often — the  more  the  better,  especially 
early  in  the  morning  when  the  ground  is  wet  with  dew.  Cauliflower  must 
never  stop  growing  or  the  ground  get  dry;  they  must  have  an  abundance  of 
moisture.  Run  the  water  down  the  rows  every  night  if  the  weather  is  pretty 
hot;  however,  cauliflower  succeeds  best  if  fully  matured  before  hot  weather 
sets  in,  which  generally  comes  early  in  June. 

When  they  commence  to  head,  gather  the  leaves  together  and  tie  loosely 
over  the  heads;  this  greatly  facilitates  blanching,  and  protects  them  from 
getting  brown  and  bitter  from  the  effects  of  the  hot  sun.  They  should 
be  examined  often  and  cut  while  the  head  is  close  and  compact,  as,  after  the 
head  opens,  it  separates  into  branches,  gets  coarse,  tough,  fibrous,  strong 
flavored  and  consequently  almost  if  not  wholly  worthless. 

A  cauliflower  would  be  an  ungrateful  thing  if  it  did  not  grow 
with  Mr.  Adams'  treatment.  But  it  will  grow  and  grow  immensely. 
Fortunately,  it  is  not  necessary  in  all  places  to  do  quite  so  much 
work,  or  field  growth  for  export  would  languish.  If  the  reader  will 
discern  the  conditions  which  Mr.  Adams  secures  he  will  be  profited, 
for  they  underlie  the  success  of  the  plant  in  all  situations.  Breaking 
the  tall  leaves  so  that  they  fall  inward  and  protect  the  forming  head 
is  preferred  to  tying  up,  by  some  growers.  This  should  be  done  as 
the  head  begins  to  form.  The  cauliflower  must  be  cut  for  use  or  sale 
before  the  head  begins  to  spread:  it  must  be  white  and  compact  or 
it  is  worthless. 


192  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES 

Inter-Culture  with  Cauliflower. — Either  with  cabbage  or  cauli- 
flower some  inter-cropping  could  be  done  in  the  irrigated  garden  if 
the  fullest  use  of  the  space  must  be  made.  In  early  spring  planting, 
lettuce  plants  grown  in  a  seed-bed  can  be  set  between  cauliflowers 
at  the  same  time  of  setting  out  the  plants.  As  soon  as  the  lettuce  is 
ready  to  cut,  plant  some  variety  of  early  beans  close  to  the  lettuce, 
and  by  the  time  the  lettuce  is  cut  the  beans  are  up,  and  by  this  time 
the  cauliflower  is  ready  to  cut.  Pull  the  stumps  as  the  cauliflower  is 
cut  and  this  gives  the  ground  to  the  coming  crop  of  beans.  Thus 
three  crops  can  be  raised  on  the  same  ground  the  same  season.  This 
cropping  can  only  be  done  on  a  summer  crop  of  cauliflower.  For 
winter  cauliflower,  set  Hanson's  lettuce  between  each  plant,  and  in 
this  way  have  early  lettuce  when  lettuce  is  scarce.  Other  combina- 
tions and  successions  will  readily  suggest  themselves. 

Varieties  of  Cauliflower. — Several  varieties  are  popular  in  this 
state : 

Early  Snowball :  early  and  a  sure  header ;  large,  white,  and 
fine ;  robust ;  counted  the  best  all-round  variety. 

California  Wonder:  comes  into  market  after  the  Early  Snow- 
ball, producing  much  larger  heads,  and  of  the  finest  quality.  It  has 
been  extensively  grown  for  the  eastern  market. 

California  Pearl :  held  to  be  specially  suited  to  semi-tropical 
climates  and  for  shipment  because  of  full  leaf-cover  of  the  head. 

Dry  Weather:  claimed  particular  endurance  of  heat  and 
drouth ;  heads  large  as  Snowball  and  nearly  as  early. 

California  Mammoth :  of  local  origin,  very  large,  commended 
for  local  use  only. 

Extra  Early  Paris :  head  medium  size ;  compact ;  stem  short ; 
hardy  and  rather  easy  to  grow. 

Extra  Early  Erfurt :  very  early,  small  leaves ;  solid,  fine  quality. 

Autumn  Giant:  large,  white,  firm,  and  solid;  keeps  condition 
well. 

Large  Algiers :  fine  for  a  late  variety ;  especially  popular  in 
southern  California. 

Lenormand's  Short  Stemmed :  large,  fine,  and  compact ;  stocky 
growth ;  heads  late  and  protects  itself  well  with  foliage. 

Nonpareil  or  Half- Early  Paris :  midseason  variety  of  good 
standing. 


CAULIFLOWER    VARIETIES  193 

This  is  another  variety  of  the  same  botanical  species  as  the 
cauliflower.  It  is  hardier  and  of  slower  growth,  but  is  smaller  in 
the  head  than  cauliflower  and  counted  less  desirable  otherwise.  It 
is  grown  to  a  very  slight  extent,  and  cuts  very  little  figure  in  Cali- 
fornia. It  is  grown  in  the  same  ways  as  the  cauliflower  but  it  takes 
longer  to  reach  maturity.  Those  who  fail  with  cauliflower  might  do 
well  with  broccoli,  which  is  less  exacting. 

Mr.  Albert  F.  Etter,  of  Briceland,  Humboldt  county,  exalts 
broccoli  as  not  only  equal  to  cauliflower  but  better  adapted  to  con- 
ditions in  many  places  in  California.  It  is  slower  in  heading,  but 
some  varieties  of  broccoli  come  in  near  to  the  late  cauliflowers. 
Broccoli  should  not  be  sown  too  early,  nor  should  it  be,  forced  along 
until  the  moist  air  of  autumn  comes  with  the  rains.  Then  it  will 
advance  splendidly  and  good  full  heads  can  be  had  from  Christmas 
until  February.  A  temperature  as  low  as  17  degrees  will  not  hurt 
them  much,  and  not  at  all  if  the  leaves  are  tied  up  over  the  develop- 
ing head.  Broccoli  will  make  a  good  fall  and  winter  growth  on  land 
which  is  rather  poor,  if  a  moderate  amount  of  manure  is  spread 
around  the  plants  at  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season. 

The  best  varieties  are  Large  or  Mammoth  White  and  Purple 
Cape. 

BORECOLE  OF   KALE. 

This  term  covers  the  non-heading  cabbages,  with  a  wonderful 
variety  and  form  and  foliage,  and  a  record  divided  between  use  and 
ornament.  There  is  a  host  of  varieties,  some  of  which  are  grown 
for  the  tender  shoots :  others  for  the  foliage.  The  edible  sorts  are 
very  little  grown  in  California ;  those  used  for  garnishment  are  more 
frequently  seen.  The  two  varieties  most  known  are  the  Tall  Green 
Curled  or  Scotch  and  the  Dwarf  Curled  or  German  Greens.  The 
plants  are  very  hardy  and  are  winter-grown. 

TALL  GROWING  COLLARDS. 

The  Jersey  Kale  or  Tree  Cabbage  is  quite  widely  distributed 
and  has  won  high  favor  as  food  for  cows  and  poultry.  It  is  peren- 
nial in  the  coast  regions  of  the  central  and  southern  parts  of  the  state, 
and  endures  defoliating  very  well.  It  is  less  thrifty  in  the  interior 
heat  and  drought. 


194  CALIFORNIA   VEGETABLES 

The  Oregon  Kale  is  an  old  European  collard,  sometimes  called 
Thousand  Headed  Cabbage.  It  belongs  to  the  same  class  as  Jersey 
Kale,  but  has  thinner  stems  and  is,  therefore,  more  easily  handled 
with  mowing  or  corn-cutting  machinery.  It  was  introduced  in  the 
Willamette  valley,  Oregon,  more  than  a  third  of  a  century  ago,  but 
only  recently  has  its  value  been  recognized  as  a  winter  feed  for 
stock  and  largely  gpown.  It  endures  local  freezing  and  is  hauled 
from  the  fields  as  needed  for  feeding.  The  plants  are  grown  in 
field  drills  and  transplanted  in  May  to  the  land  to  be  covered  with 
it,  the  plants  being  set  in  every  third  furrow  as  the  field  is  plowed 
and  covered  in  with  the  next  furrow,  the  ground  being  afterwards 
rolled  to  compact  the  dirt  around  the  roots.  Planting  with  a  machine 
on  land  previously  plowed  and  harrowed  is  also  practiced.  Kale 
may  also  be  grown  in  the  way  already  described  for  field  growth  of 
cabbage  except  that  the  plants  should  be  given  rather  more  room. 
In  California  the  plant  is  likely  to  be  of  value  for  stock  feeding  by 
fall  planting  and  winter  growth  as  well  as  by  summer  growth  to 
stand  for  winter  use  as  in  Oregon.  In  fact,  winter  growth  for  sum- 
mer feeding  may  also  be  practicable  in  California,  especially  near 
the  coast.  As  with  other  members  of  the  cabbage  family,  dairy 
cows  should  be  fed  kale  just  after  milking  to  avoid  risk  of  tainting 
the  milk. 

Marrow  kale  or  cabbage  resembles  the  foregoing  when  young, 
but  afterwards  the  stalk  enlarges  until  several  inches  in  diameter. 
The  pith  or  marrow  often  cracks  open.  It  has  attracted  some  atten- 
tion in  the  northern  coast  district  for  cow  feeding. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

THE  CARROT,  PARSNIP  AND  SALSIFY. 

CARROT. — Daucus  carota. 

French,  carotte ;  German,  mohre,  gelbriibe ;  Dutch,  wortel ;  Italian,  carota ; 
Spanish  zanahoria ;  Portuguese,  cenoura. 

PARSNIP. — Pastinaca  sativa. 

French,  panais;  German,  pastinake;  Dutch,  pastinaak;  Danish,  pastinak; 
Italian,  pastinaca ;   Spanish,  chirivia ;  Portuguese,  pastinaga. 

SALSIFY. — Tragopogong  porrifolius. 

French,    salsifis ;    German,    haferworzel ;    Flemish,    haverwortel ;    Danish, 
havrerod;  Italian,  barba  di  becco;  Spanish,  salsifi  bianco;  Portuguese,  cercifi. 

The  carrot  is  a  very  popular  root  in  California,  and  is  grown 
in  all  parts  of  the  state,  both  for  the  table  and  for  stock  feeding. 
It  is  perfectly  hardy  in  all  temperatures  which  come  to  California 
valleys  and  foothills.  It  is  patient  during  drought  and  proceeds 
quickly  with  its  growth  with  renewed  moisture,  which  is  a  very 
valuable  characteristic  in  growing  the  carrot  for  stock  feeding,  but 
table  carrots  should  not  be  subjected  to  this  ordeal,  but  should  be 
pushed  with  adequate  moisture  quickly  from  the  seed  to  size  to 
secure  the  desired  tenderness  and  mild  flavor.  To  attain  the  coveted 
weight  for  stock  feeding,  however,  it  is  quite  an  advantage  to  have 
the  rain  beyond  the  dry  season,  as  well  as  before  it,  because  early 
sowing  in  cold,  wet  ground  does  not  suit  the  plant  and  late  sowing 
does  not  give  the  plant  time  enough  except  on  irrigated  land,  to  do 
its  best  in  size  before  the  dry  season  checks  its  growth.  By  proper 
practice,  then,  it  is  possible  to  produce  great  crops  of  carrots  in  the 
drier  parts  of  the  state,  as  well  as  in  the  moister  lands  and  regions. 

Soil  and  Tillage. — The  requirements  of  the  carrot  so  closely 
resemble  that  of  the  beet  that  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  sugges- 
tions for  culture  already  given  for  the  beet.  The  carrot  has  the 
same  liking  for  a  light,  warm  soil,  and  the  same  reasons  exist  for 
a  deep  and  thorough  preparation  of  the  soil ;  for,  though  the  carrot, 

(195) 


196  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES 

if  the  seed  is  sown  after  the  chill  and  surplus  water  have  gone  out 
of  a  heavy  soil,  will  do  very  well  if  well  cultivated,  it  produces  the 
largest  and  most  shapely  roots  when  it  can  deeply  penetrate  and 
easily  displace  the  soil  in  its  expansion.  Carrot  ground  should, 
then,  receive  early  working  to  receive  the  rains,  and  be  plowed  again 
and  well  loosened  up  and  fined  before  the  seed  is  sown. 

Sowing  Carrot  Seed. — It  is  very  necessary  that  the  soil  should 
be  in  good  condition.  Sowing  in  the  fall  on  irrigated  ground  is 
practicable,  and  so  is  sowing  immediately  after  the  early  fall  rains 
have  moistened  the  soil  sufficiently  to  prevent  drying  out,  but  if  the 
place  is  quite  frosty  and  the  soil  apt  to  be  water-soaked,  later  plant- 
ing is  better.  For  this  reason,  as  already  stated,  some  prefer  to 
bridge  the  dry  season,  sowing  in  March  or  even  in  April,  so  that 
the  young  plant  may  have  the  best  conditions  at  the  start.  As  it 
gets  age  it  becomes  hardier  and  can  be  taken  from  the  ground  in 
good  condition  and  maximum  size  all  during  the  following  winter. 
Late  sowing  is  also  advocated  because  of  the  opportunity  to  kill 
weeds  by  plowing  in  the  winter  growth  before  seeding.  This  prac- 
tice is  generally  approved  in  the  coast  regions  of  the  northern  part 
of  the  state.  On  the  other  hand,  in  southern  California,  and  in  most 
parts  of  the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento  valleys,  on  the  lighter  soils 
especially,  a  start  from  the  seed  in  December  or  January,  when 
weather  and  soil  favor  it,  gives  the  plant  a  chance  to  root  well  before 
the  dry  season  and  then  it  is  in  much  better  condition  to  stand  heat 
and  drought  than  if  younger.  Both  practices  are  rational  and  each 
is  adapted  to  its  own  set  of  conditions. 

Carrot  seed  must  be  fresh.  It  is  small,  rather  difficult  to  handle 
evenly,  and  requires  a  shallow  covering  of  earth.  It  is  more  difficult 
to  get  a  good  stand  of  carrots  than  of  beets,  but  care  will  insure  it 
with  good  seed.  .  Distribution  is  facilitated  by  mixing  the  seed 
thoroughly  with  a  certain  amount  of  moist  sand,  and  if  the  mixture 
is  kept  warm  and  moist  the  seed  may  be  allowed  to  sprout  slightly 
before  sowing  but  not  too  far.  The  seed  must  be  placed  in  moist 
ground,  and  half  an  inch  is  covering  enough  except  in  light  soils 
likely  to  dry  down.  The  seed  should  be  pressed  down  well  or  the 
soil  firmed  about  it,  and  then  lightly  covered  and  the  covering  pressed 
slightly. 

Cultivation. — Carrots  in  field  culture  are  usually  grown  in  rows 
two  to  three  feet  apart  according  to  the  notion  of  the  grower.  Thin- 
ning in  the  row  is  seldom  done  though  the  advantage  of  it  would 


CARROT    CULTURE 


197 


be  shown  in  better  roots  just  as  with  beets.  Growers  shrink,  how- 
ever, from  the  expense  and  prefer  to  trust  to  frequent  cultivation 
between  the  rows. 

Ridge  Culture  of  Carrots.— Where  it  is  desired  to  get  an  early 
start  in  a  locality  with  a  heavy  rainfall  the  ridge  system  gives  good 
results.  Choose  rich  soil,  plow  after  the  first  rain,  and  then  in  Janu- 
ary or  February  when  the  ground  gets  warm  (according  to  the 
season  and  locality)  cross-plow  and  harrow  until  the  ground  is 
thoroughly  pulverized.  Then  ridge  some  two  or  three  and  a  half 
feet  apart,  rake  off  the  combs  of  the  furrows,  making  them  level 
on  top  and  free  from  lumps.  Put  in  the  seed  by  hand  or  with  a 
seed  drill  covering  lightly,  cultivate  and  thin  out  for  cow-feed 
during  the  summer  and  the  crop  will  be  of  good  uniform  size  for 
horse-feed  during  the  following  winter  and  spring.  Though  this 
practice  is  still  followed  by  some  it  has  been  widely  superseded  in 
field  work  by  later  sowing  and  flat  culture.  For  an  early  start  in  the 
farm  garden  it  has,  however,  some  advantages. 

Harvesting. — This  is  done  by  pulling,  after  loosening  with  the 
plow.  The  time,  as  already  stated,  is  usually  during  the  winter,  but 
feeding  often  commences  in  the  fall  and  continues  for  several 
months — just  as  with  mangels. 

Field  Varieties. — Several  large,  yellow  and  white  varieties  are 
used  for  stock  purposes.  The  richer  color  and  more  convenient  size 
of  the  yellow  varieties  hold  them  in  favor  as  a  marketable  stock 
carrot,  but  the  large  size  and  greater  crop  of  the  White  Belgian 
makes  it  a  favorite  where  the  crop  is  to  be  fed  at  home.  This  variety 
is  grown  in  all  California  dairy  regions.  It  sometimes  reaches  a 
weight  of  sixteen  pounds  or  more  and  a  yield  of  over  forty  tons  to 
the  acre  on  rich,  deep  land,  though  half  of  these  figures  would  better 
suit  average  conditions.  The  Danvers  Half  Long,  in  addition  to 
being  a  good  garden  carrot,  is  largely  grown  for  stock.  Long 
Orange  is  valuable  on  light  soils  where  digging  is  easy. 

Garden  Carrots. — As  already  stated  garden  carrots  should  be 
grown  quickly  with  acceptable  heat  and  moisture.  Simple  forcing 
conditions,  like  a  bed  of  five  or  six  inches  of  good  loam  over  a  foot 
or  more  of  tamped  manure  and  a  slight  protective  covering  will 
give  very  sweet  and  tender  roots  to  the  short  varieties  in  our  coldest 
weather.  But  so  much  can  be  done  with  the  ridge  system  or  with 
raised  beds  described  in  a  previous  chapter  and  with  other  simple 
modifications  of  open-air  conditions  that  very  little  forcing  is  done. 


198  CALIFORNIA   VEGETABLES 

Country  gardeners,  as  a  rule,  do  not  know  much  about  the  best 
table  carrots.  They  supply  their  tables  and  their  stock  too  often 
from  the  same  sowing  when  much  sweeter  and  tenderer  roots  should 
be  grown  in  the  garden  by  small  sowings  of  the  improved  table 
varieties.  Those  which  are  most  grown  in  California  are  the  fol- 
lowing : 

Early  French  forcing  carrot :  very  early,  small  and  fine  flavor. 

Ox-heart  or  Guerande :  very  short,  almost  cup-shaped,  very  rapid  grower, 
early  and  excellent. 

Half  Long  Danvers :  a  popular  market  variety,  strong  grower  and  suc- 
ceeding on  a  wide  range  of  soils;  rich  color  and  good  flavor. 

Improved  Long  Orange :  smoother  and  more  uniform  than  the  old  sort ; 
also  better  flavor  and  color. 

Chantenay:   short  and  sturdy,  bright  orange-scarlet,   early. 

Improved  Short  White:  best  of  the  whites,  short  and  cylindrical. 

Red  St.  Valery:  one  of  the  best  of  the  medium  long  varieties. 

Early  Scarlet  or   Short  Horn :   largely  grown  and  of  good  quality. 


THE  PARSNIP. 

Parsnips  are  not  largely  grown  in  California.  Two  considera- 
tions may  be  involved  in  an  explanation  of  this  fact :  one  is  that  our 
winter  supply  of  fresher  vegetables  relieves  us  from  dependence 
upon  root-boiling,  which  is  the  staple  resource  of  so  many  dwellers 
in  cold  climates;  another  is,  that  the  parsnip,  if  sown  early,  is  not 
always  content  to  remain  dormant  and  crisp  for  months  as  it  does 
beneath  the  snow.  It  quickly  responds  to  our  winter  warmth  and 
moisture  and  starts  second  growth,  which  renders  the  root  woody 
and  flavorless.  It  is  quite  possible  for  parsnip  lovers  in  warm,  moist 
regions  to  overcome  this  by  mid-summer  sowing  or  it  can  be  pre- 
vented in  other  places  by  digging  the  roots  and  storing  them  in  boxes 
or  barrels  of  sand  in  a  dry,  cool  place,  and  it  really  should  be  urged 
that  this  be  done  more  widely,  because  those  who  are  not  fitted  by 
location  or  inclination  to  start  fall  growth  of  vegetables  for  winter 
eating,  should  have  a  good  supply  of  parsnips,  which  are,  to  most 
tastes,  delicious.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  in  this  climate  that  the 
parsnip  will  be  called  upon  to  render  the  important  service  that  it 
does  in  the  east  whenever  the  snow  uncovers  the  ground  in  the 
winter  or  spring,  because  at  that  very  time  we  have  abundance  of 
fresh  vegetables  hardy  in  our  climate. 


PARSNIP    CULTURE  199 

Soil  and  Culture. — The  excellence  of  the  parsnip  is  vested  in 
a  well-developed  root,  and  to  secure  this  rich,  deep,  and  permeable 
soil  and  adequate  moisture  are  required.  Deep  cultivation  and 
manuring  will  secure  these  qualities  even  in  rather  a  heavy  soil. 
Parsnip  seed  is  light  and  should  receive  a  shallow  covering  but  it  is 
necessary  that  it  should  be  well  firmed  in  moist  soil  to  secure  ger- 
mination. As  soon  as  the  plants  are  two  or  three  inches  high  the 
rows  should  be  cleaned  of  weeds,  the  plants  spaced,  and  frequent 
use  of  the  cultivator  begun,  to  continue  all  summer.  The  sugges- 
tions made  for  the  preparation  of  soil  and  cultivation  of  the  beet  and 
the  carrot  have  direct  application  to  the  growth  of  the  parsnip,  and 
the  reader  is  referred  to  them. 

In  the  rainy  parts  of  the  state  it  is  customary  to  sow  parsnips 
as  soon  as  the  ground  is  in  good  condition  in  February,  as  the  plant 
is  quite  hardy.  From  this  date  onward  the  seed  can  be  successfully 
sown  as  long  as  the  soil  has  moisture  enough,  and  in  moist  interior 
lands  seed  can  be  sown  in  July,  or  even  later,  and  the  plants  will 
make  a  good  fall  growth  and  be  ready  for  winter  use  from  the 
ground,  as  late  sowing  in  a  warm  region  with  moisture  assured, 
carries  the  plant  along  without  danger  of  a  check  and  a  second 
growth. 

Varieties. — Two  varieties  of  parsnips  prevail  in  this  state : 

Hollow  Crown  or  Student:  long,  large,  smooth  roots  in  deep 
soils;  tender,  sweet,  and  fine  flavored  when  well  grown.  This  is 
the  chiefly  grown  variety. 

Improved  Guernsey:  half-long,  shorter  and  thicker  than  the 
foregoing. 

Devonshire :  another  short  variety  popular  with  market  gar- 
deners in  southern  California. 

Round  or  Turnip  Rooted :  better  suited  for  shallow  soils,  owing 
to  shape ;  develops  faster  than  the  long  type. 

SALSIFY. 

This  delicious  root  stands  subject  to  the  same  conditions  which 
have  limited  the  growth  of  parsnips  in  this  state,  but  its  popularity 
has  increased  greatly  during  the  last  few  years.  The  requirements 
of  the  plant  in  soil,  culture,  and  season  correspond  very  closely  to 
the  parsnip,  and  it  is  taken  from  the  ground  all  through  the  autumn 


200  CALIFORNIA   VEGETABLES 

and  winter  as  parsnips  are  in  California.  The  seed  is  a  little  more 
difficult  to  start,  and  pretty  generous  seeding  in  soil  sure  to  retain 
fair  moisture,  and  a  slightly  deeper  covering  than  with  parsnip 
seed  are  desirable.  Thinning  is  essential  but  the  root  is  slimmer 
and  does  not  require  so  much  room.  One  variety  comprises  the 
local  interest,  the  Mammoth  Sandwich  Island.  It  is  large  and  other- 
wise better  than  the  older  kinds,  although  the  Long  White  is  still 
grown. 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 
CELERY. 

CELERY. — Apium  graveolcns. 

French,  celeri;   German,  sellerie;   Danish,   selleri ;   Italian,   sedano  apio ; 
Spanish,  apio. 

CELERIAC — Idem. 

French,  celeri-rave;  German,  knoll-sellerie ;  Dutch,  knoll-selderij ;  Danish, 
knold-selleri ;   Italian,  sedano-rapa ;   Spanish,  apio-nabo. 

California  celery  taken  from  the  field  during  the  winter  months 
and  delivered  in  the  eastern  markets  by  frost-proof  cars  has,  during 
the  last  few  years,  made  decided  progress  in  competition  with 
the  eastern  product  taken  from  frost-proof  storage  in  pits,  or 
specially-constructed  celery  houses.  On  certain  well-suited  soils  in 
regions  subject  to  coast  influences  and,  therefore,  with  moderated 
summer  temperature,  the  celery  plant  makes  a  grand  summer 
growth,  with  or  without  irrigation,  according  to  the  natural  moisture 
of  the  soil,  and  encounters  no  fall  or  winter  temperature  which 
injures  it  in  the  open  field.  In  fact,  in  these  special  localities  and 
soils,  which  will  be  described  presently,  the  plant  finds  naturally 
provided  those  conditions  for  splendid  development  which  in  less 
favored  regions,  can  only  be  secured  by  considerable  artifice  and 
investment.  For  these  reasons  commercial  celery  growing  for  dis- 
tant markets  is  a  rapidly  advancing  industry,  and  has  given  great 
value  to  lands  suited  to  its  uses.  It  is  estimated  that  not  less  than 
•six  thousand  acres  were  grown  in  Orange  county  in  1907,  but  since 
that  time  owing  to  lower  prices  and  other  troubles  the  acreage  has 
been  reduced  until  in  1912  it  fell  to  1,500  acres,  the  land  being 
largely  given  to  sugar  beets  and  Lima  beans.  The  acreage  of  celery 
in  the  Stockton  district  in  1912  was  about  1,500  acres,  as  follows: 
Jersey  Island,  350;  Bradford  Island,  400;  Twitchells  Island,  200; 
Staten  Island,  400;  Sherman  Island,  150  acres.  There  is  also  a  con- 
siderable product  for  shipment  grown  on  moist  lowlands  near  Sacra- 

(201) 


202  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

mento,  and  large  plantations  are  made  some  years  in  Arroyo  Grande, 
San  Luis  Obispo  county. 

In  many  parts  of  the  state,  especially  on  low,  moist  lands  which 
are  frequently  of  saline  character,  wild  celery  grows  thriftily,  and 
its  growth  has  served  as  an  incentive  to  commercial  planting.  This 
wild  celery  is,  however,  not  a  native  plant.  It  is  merely  the  garden 
celery  which  has  escaped  from  cultivation  and  the  escape  must  have 
been  at  an  early  date,  for  the  occurrence  was  noted  by  botanists  at 
least  thirty  years  ago.  It  is  now  widely  distributed. 

Locations  for  Celery. — Celery  thrives  best  in  an  equable,  cool 
temperature,  but  it  accepts  conditions  in  the  "cool  night"  districts 
of  the  interior  valley.  It  does  not  well  endure  high  heat ;  it  is  hardy 
against  California  valley  frosts,  and  it  demands  adequate  moisture. 
It  is,  therefore,  successfully  grown  in  the  fall  and  winter  in  regions 
where  summer  heat  is  too  high,  and  in  the  equable  coast  climate 
it  can  be  enjoyed  all  the  year,  providing  ample  soil  moisture  can  be 
assured.  Commercially,  it  is  summer  grown  for  winter  shipment 
because  it  is  then  best  received  in  the  eastern  markets. 

Soils. — Aside  from  abundant  moisture  the  chief  requirement 
of  the  plant  is  large  amounts  of  decomposed  vegetable  matter  in  the 
soil.  This  is  provided  in  ordinary  garden  soils  by  the  free  use  of 
well-rotted  manure,  mixing  it  thoroughly  with  the  soil  by  deep  dig- 
ging in  or  trenching,  and  for  home  supplies  this  should  be  under- 
taken, but  those  who  can,  may  avail  themselves  of  the  conclusions 
of  a  grower  at  Castroville,  near  the  coast  in  Monterey  county,  who, 
after  trying  for  a  number  of  years,  almost  in  vain,  to  raise  good 
celery  on  an  ordinary  dry  garden  soil,  finally  borrowed  the  use  of  a 
little  patch  of  reclaimed  swamp  land — deep,  black  muck,  well  drained 
but  moist — and  grew  on  it  very  fine  celery  with  but  little  labor.  In 
undertaking  production  on  a  commercial  scale  this  advantage  of 
specially  suited  soil  is  imperative.  An  instance  of  such  soil-fitness 
is  found  in  the  peat  lands  of  Orange  County  and  the  Stockton  dis- 
trict, where  celery  growing  has  reached  the  importance  above  noted. 
The  soil  is  a  true  peat,  consisting  almost  wholly  of  decomposed 
vegetable  matter  and  becoming  on  cultivation,  fine  and  homogeneous. 
It  is  different  from  the  partially-decomposed  and  coarse  material 
of  the  tule  swamps.  It  occurs  in  Orange  county  in  deposits  of  vary- 
ing thickness  and  sandwiched  with  layers  of  sediment  or  clay,  the 
peat  layers  being,  however,  connected  through  the  dense  layers  by 
tubes  through  which  the  water  rises  in  springs  and  sub-irrigates  the 


GARDEN  CULTURE  OF  CELERY  203 

surface  layer.  This  surface  is  treacherous.  Much  of  it  will  only 
support  horses  when  shod  with  plank  and  some  cannot  be  traversed 
with  animals  and  is  worked  by  drawing  tools  back  and  forth  with 
cables  from  firm  headlands  on  each  side.  Still  it  is  so  productive  of 
celery  that  such  bottomless  land  has  been  rented  as  high  as  twenty 
dollars  per  acre  per  year. 

In  addition  to  the  peat  lands  celery  is  also  successfully  grown 
on  light  sandy  loams  and  on  river  sediments.  The  lightness  of  the 
soil  is  directly  involved  in  the  blanching,  which  will  be  noted  later. 

Heavy  fertilization  is  often  very  desirable  for  celery,  especially 
on  the  lands  just  mentioned.  Instances  are  given  in  which  nitrate 
of  soda  was  used  at  the  rate  of  675  Ibs.  per  acre  after  the  crop  was 
growing  on  land  which  has  received  twenty  tons  of  stable  manure 
and  thirty  bushels  of  slaked  lime  per  acre.  In  this  case  it  is  also 
claimed  that  the  crop  was  ready  five  days  earlier  than  that  which 
received  no  nitrate. 

GARDEN  CULTURE  OF  CELERY. 

Celery  plants  are  grown  in  a  seed-bed  for  transplanting  to  per- 
manent place.  The  seed  is  very  small  and  very  slow  of  germination, 
and  success  depends  upon  maintaining  even  moisture  at  the  surface. 
For  starting  plants  in  winter  a  hot-bed  may  be  used,  but  high  heat 
is  neither  necessary  nor  desirable.  A  cold  frame  with  cloth  cover 
would  be  better.  But  it  is  quite  feasible  in  coast  valley  situations  to 
grow  the  plants  in  the  open  air  early  enough  in  the  spring  to  get 
the  crop  for  the  table  from  November  onward.  Simple  and  correct 
suggestions  for  garden  culture  are  given  by  Mr.  S.  J.  Murdock  of 
Orange  county  as  follows : 

It  requires  from  three  to  four  months  from  time  of  sowing  the  seed 
till  the  plants  are  large  enough  to  plant  out.  The  warmer  the  weather  the 
quicker  the  plants  will  grow,  and  the  warmer  and  drier  the  atmosphere  is, 
the  more  water  the  seed-bed  will  need.  Select  rich,  friable  soil  and  sow 
the  seed  evenly  and  only  moderately  thick.  Cover  the  seed  but  lightly,  as 
they  are  very  small,  and  firm  the  soil  well.  Keep  the  soil  or  bed  moist,  not 
soaking  wet,  but  never  dry,  and  have  patience  as  they  are  slow  to  germinate. 
Keep  free  from  weeds  and  thin  if  too  thick ;  one  plant  to  the  square  inch 
is  about  right.  When  the  plants  get  about  three  inches  high,  clip  the  tops 
off,  not  too  close,  but  about  half  way,  and  continue  to  keep  the  bed  moist, 
and  when  about  four  inches  high  clip  again,  and  they  will  be  ready  to  plant. 

In  about  a  week  or  ten  days  lift  the  plants  with  a  shovel  or  garden 
trowel  so  as  not  to  disturb  the  fine  roots  more  than  is  necessary.  Trim 
the  main  or  taproot  to  two  or  three  inches  and  keep  the  roots  moist  until 


204  CALIFORNIA   VEGETABLES 

planted.  Select  a  good,  rich  plat  where  water  is  handy,  as  the  ground  should 
be  as  moist  as  possible  to  work,  and  draw  shallow  furrows,  say  about  four 
inches  below  the  level,  and  put  the  plants  six  inches  apart  in  the  row.  I 
would  prefer  a  single  row  of  sufficient  length  to  two  or  more  shorter  ones. 

Take  a  hard-wood  peg,  about  one  and  a  quarter  inches  in  diameter  and 
six  inches  long;  sharpen  one  end  to  make  the  holes  for  the  plants.  Put  the 
roots  straight,  and  be  sure  and  firm  the  soil  well  around  each  plant. 

Stir  the  ground  around  the  plants  and  keep  the  soil  away  instead  of 
up  to  them  till  the  plants  get  twelve  or  fourteen  inches  high,  then  work  the 
soil  to  the  plants  (but  only  when  they  are  dry)  and  keep  the  roots  moist. 
If  in  the  interior  valleys,  it  is  better  to  blanch  it  with  boards  than  by  bank- 
ing with  earth.  Blanch  by  setting  twelve-inch  boards  on  edge  on  each  side 
of  the  row  and  secure  them  with  stakes  stuck  in  the  ground  and  tied  at 
the  top,  or  some  dirt  thrown  against  the  bottom  of  the  boards  and  the  tops 
held  together  with  notched  strips.  It  requires  from  two  to  three  weeks  to 
blanch  the  White  Plume  and  longer  for  the  green  sorts.  One  set  of  boards 
will  blanch  two  or  three  lengths,  as  they  can  be  moved  along  the  row  as 
the  celery  is  used.  Never  bank  or  board  it  when  wet,  and  be  sure  to  have 
both  bank  and  boards  close  enough  at  the  top  so  that  the  leaves  will  shed 
the  rain  to  the  outside. 

Blanching  may  be  done  in  garden  culture  by  the  use  of  drain 
tiles  or  by  wrapping  the  plants  in  pieces  of  sacking.  Any  arrange- 
ment which  excludes  light  and  water  from  the  stems  will  accomplish 
the  desired  results. 

FIELD  CULTURE  OF  CELERY. 

Field  culture  of  celery  on  the  very  friable  peat  lands  of  Orange 
county  has  developed  appliances  and  processes  which  are  very 
effective  and  satisfactory,  and  cheapen  production  to  an  extent  not 
attainable  except  on  very  friable  soils.  Still  the  practices  inculcate 
the  ends  to  be  attained  in  all  cases,  though  the  means  may  differ. 
Mr.  S.  J.  Murdock  has  given  a  very  explicit  description  of  the 
methods  he  has  found  most  satisfactory  in  his  experience,  from 
which  the  following  is  largely  compiled. 

The  Seed-bed. — A  seed-bed  which  is  naturally  moist  or  which 
can  be  sub-irrigated  is  preferable,  although  the  raised  bed  with 
irrigation  by  seepage,  or  other  arrangement  for  maintaining  moist- 
ure may  be  used.  The  soil  must  be  light  and  free  from  baking. 
The  seed-bed  should  be  plowed  by  the  middle  of  December  and  left 
rough  for  the  action  of  frosts  and  rain,  and  about  two  weeks  before 
sowing,  harrow  down  and  thoroughly  hand  rake.  Let  it  lie  till 
seed-time,  which  is  during  March,  April  and  May,  as  to  season  or 
early  or  late  planting.  The  early-sown  seed  requires  longer  time 
to  make  plants  large  enough  for  planting,  but  if  planted  moderately 


CELERY  FIELD  CULTURE  205 

thick  and  well  cared  for,  makes  strong,  sturdy  plants.  At  planting 
rake  the  surface  thoroughly  again  with  a  sharp,  .close-toothed  rake 
and  either  drill  or  sow  seed  broadcast.  The  drill  is  preferable  but 
if  broadcast  lightly  rake  the  seed  in  and  either  roll  or  firm  the  soil 
thoroughly,  as  there  is  much  seed  lost  by  neglecting  this  part.  The 
seed-beds  are  generally  made  from  four  to  six  feet  wide,  leaving 
roorg  between  each  bed  to  weed  and  clip  them,  which  constitutes 
the  after  care  except  to  keep  them  moist.  Keep  as  free  from  weeds 
as  possible,  and  when  the  plants  get  about  three  inches  high,  clip  the 
tops  about  half  way  down,  and  when  they  get  three  or  four  inches 
high,  if  not  ready  to  plant,  clip  again,  as  the  keeping  of  tops  back 
makes  the  roots  strong. 

Irrigation  is  often  used  to  start  the  plants  strongly  at  first,  but 
subsequent  growth  is  secured  by  very  sparing  use  of  water  if  pos- 
sible. Standing  water  among  the  young  plants  should  not  be 
allowed.  It  is  usually  counted  that  one  acre  of  seed-bed  will  furnish 
plants  for  twenty  acres  of  planting  out. 

Planting  in  the  Field. — The  land  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned 
of  trash  and  given  early  and  thorough  preparation  as  will  be  de- 
scribed in  the  chapter  on  corn.  In  Orange  county  planting  in  the 
early  part  of  June  brings  the  crop  for  Thanksgiving  and  in  July  for 
the  holidays  and  later.  In  the  Stockton  district  experience  has 
favored  planting  out  not  later  than  June  in  order  to  bring  the  crop 
out  of  the  field  before  the  heavy  rains  and  frosts  of  the  lowlands 
in  the  early  winter,  which  have  previously  occasioned  some  heavy 
losses. 

Laying  off  for  planting  may  be  done  by  taking  off  all  but  the 
three  inside  discs  of  a  disc  harrow,  attaching  a  shovel  plow  in  the 
middle  and  close  behind  the  harrow,  and  following  this  with  a  five 
or  six-foot  roller  with  a  raised  belt  around  the  center,  which  runs 
in  the  plow  furrow  and  forms  a  compact  trench  about  six  inches 
deep.  Three  and  one-half  or  four  feet  is  the  usual  distance  between 
the  trenches,  and  the  plants  are  set  six  inches  apart  in  the  bottom 
of  the  trench. 

A  full  crew  of  planters  is  ten  men;  one  to  lay  out  the  furrows, 
one  spacer  or  marker,  who  has  an  implement  which  makes  from 
four  to  twelve  holes  at  a  time,  depending  on  the  size  of  tool  used. 
There  are  also  four  planters  and  four  plant  pullers.  It  is  the  duty 
of  the  first  man  to  draw  the  furrows  as  straight  and  as  near  equi- 
distant as  possible,  give  general  supervision  of  the  planting  and  see 


206 


CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 


that  the  pullers  use  judgment  in  preparing  the  plants.  Unless  the 
plants  have  been  recently  clipped  in  the  bed,  both  tops  and  roots 
need  clipping  when  pulled,  so  as  to  leave  the  main  or  taproot  about 
two  and  one-half  or  three  inches  long,  and  the  tops  clipped  of  the 
surplus  leaves.  They  are  usually  put  in  large-sized  milk  pans,  the 
roots  kept  wet  and  delivered  to  the  planters  in  the  pans.  The  spacer 
makes  the  holes  for  the  plants  just  ahead  of  the  planter.  Both  the 
furrows  and  holes  for  plants  should  be  freshly  made  so  as  to  have 
no  dry  dirt  to  hinder  the  planters,  who  should  be  careful  and  pains- 
taking, as  the  plants  need  to  be  put  in  the  proper  depth,  the  roots 
straight  and  the  soil  well  firmed  around  each  plant  and  no  unfilled 
space  beneath  the  plant  to  dry  out.  A  crew  should  plant  from  an 
acre  to  an  acre  and  a  half  per  day,  according  to  the  condition  of  the 
land  and  the  proper  oversight  of  the  force.  This  mode  of  planting 
leaves  the  plants  from  four  to  six  inches  below  the  general  level. 

Crowding. — The  next  operation  is  called  crowding,  which  is 
done  by  a  tool  made  as  follows :  Take  a  common  iron  or  steel  culti- 
vator, take  the  standards  and  shovels  all  off,  then  take  two  pieces 
of  steel  one-fourth  of  an  inch  thick,  six  inches  wide  and  four  feet 
long.  Sharpen  one  edge  of  each  piece  and  bolt  to  the  outside  frames 
of  the  cultivator  so  that  the  tops  of  the  steel  bars  are  about  even 
with  the  top  of  the  frame  and  on  top  of  the  rear  half  of  each,  add 
eight  or  ten  inches  of  heavy  sheet  iron.  The  front  of  these  blades 
should  be  from  five  to  six  inches  apart  and  the  rear  about  thirty 
inches.  In  a  week  or  ten  days  after  planting,  hitch  two  steady 
horses  to  this  tool  and  crowd  the  dirt  away  from  each  side  of  the 
rows.  This  kills  the  new  weeds  just  starting  and  covers  up  all 
in  the  middle  of  the  rows  and  leaves  a  ridge  of  loose  soil.  Follow 
this  by  going  over  each  row  and  filling  in  all  the  missing  plants  with 
strong  vigorous  ones  and  uncover  any  plants  covered  by  clods  or 
loose  dirt;  then  take  a  light,  narrow  hoe  and  draw  between  each 
plant.  When  plants  get  larger,  work  the  soil  back  to  them  to  prevent 
spreading.  Keep  well  tilled,  and  soil  moist  by  irrigation  if  necessary. 

Rolling. — The  handling  of  the  soil  after  "crowding"  is  described 
by  Stanly  S.  Rogers  in  this  way:  The  earth  between  the  rows  of 
plants  is  left  in  a  ridge  after  the  plants  have  been  "crowded."  A 
large  wooden  roller  which  extends  across  several  rows  is  now  used 
to  flatten  down  these  ridges  and  pack  to  soil  more  firmly.  The  roller 
is  used  only  when  the  plants  are  small,  otherwise  they  would  be  in- 
jured by  being  crushed.  When  the  plants  have  grown  sufficiently 


BLANCHING    AND    HARVESTING  207 

to  be  injured  by  this  rolling  of  the  middles,  the  ridges  are  smoothed 
down  by  the  cultivator. 

Splitting. — When  the  plants  are  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  tall, 
earth  from  between  the  rows  is  drawn  up  to  them.  This  is  termed 
"splitting."  This  should  be  done  carefully,  for,  if  the  earth  is  put 
too  close  or  too  high  up  on  the  plants,  they  will  become  tender  and 
weak,  especially  if  the  weather  is  hot.  The  object  of  "splitting"  is 
to  gradually  encourage  the  plants  to  grow  tall  and  straight  instead 
of  spreading  out.  This  operation  is  repeated  twice  during  the 
season,  the  first  time  when  the  plants  are  fourteen  to  sixteen  inches 
tall  and  the  second  time  just  before  banking.  This  last  "splitting" 
also  aids  blanching. 

Blanching. — There  is  in  market  gardens  some  blanching  with 
boards  set  on  edge  on  each  side  of  the  rows  secured  by  stakes  made 
of  lath  stuck  in  the  ground  and  tied  together  at  the  top,  but  in  large 
field  growth  it  is  done  by  banking  the  soil  up  to  the  plants.  This  is 
done  by  a  machine  made  the  reverse  of  the  crowder  described  for 
first  use  and  much  larger  and  heavier.  It  is  used  with  wide  end 
forward,  which  draws  and  crowds  the  loose  earth  up  to  the  plants. 
Blanching  is  done  when  the  celery  is  reaching  its  maturity  and  is 
nearly  ready  for  shipment.  This  is  the  last  field  operation  before 
the  crop  is  cut.  When  the  celery  is  banked  for  the  first  time  the 
earth  is  not  drawn  very  high  on  the  plants,  but  each  time  the  field  is 
banked  the  soil  is  drawn  higher  so  as  to  firmly  hold  the  leaves  to- 
gether and  in  an  upright  position.  If  celery  that  has  been  banked 
for  the  last  time  is  not  harvested  shortly,  it  will  soon  become 
"punky."  The  length  of  time  that  it  can  safely  be  left  in  the  bank 
depends  upon  the  character  of  the  soil,  the  weather  conditions,  and 
upon  the  condition  of  the  plants  themselves.  Celery  on  sandy  soil 
will  keep  much  longer  in  the  bank  than  on  adobe  or  peat  soil.  If 
the  celery  has  not  matured  or  if  the  weather  is  hot  or  moist  its 
keeping  quality  will  be  injured.  Holding  too  long  in  the  bank  will 
result  in  a  wilted  and  "punky"  product. 

Harvesting. — The  harvesting  is  done  with  a  "U"  shaped  cutter 
attached  to  an  old  sulky  plow  frame,  drawn  on  each  side  and  under 
the  rows  of  banked  celery,  cutting  off  the  roots  and  raising  the  plants 
in  the  loose  soil.  This  is  followed  by  the  trimmers,  who  lift  the 
plants,  trim  off  the  outer  stalk  and  square  the  roots.  It  is  now 
ready  to  tie  in  bunches  or  crate. 


208  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

Marketing. — Celery  is  shipped  in  crates,  22x24  in.  base,  which 
holds  six  to  eight  dozen  of  celery,  according  to  size.  An  average 
crate  will  weigh  about  145  pounds,  and  160  crates  make  an  average 
carload.  Some  eastern  dealers  prefer  the  celery  shipped  in  bulk 
or  on  decks  built  in  the  car.  This  is  a  much  cheaper  way  to  ship, 
and  is  claimed  by  some  to  be  just  as  safe.  In  shipping  in  this  way, 
three  decks  are  built  in  the  car,  and  the  celery  is  tied  in  bunches 
of  one  dozen  each  and  stood  upright  with  roots  resting  on  the  decks. 
By  this  method  three  or  four  hundred  dozen  more  celery  can  be 
packed  in  a  car.  Celery  is  shipped  to  all  the  principal  cities  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  and  carries  successfully.  The  marketing 
of  the  crop  is  largely  done  by  associations  of  growers. 

The  Yield. — The  estimated  product  in  Orange  county  in  1911 
was  a  value  of  $500,000  from  2,000  acres,  or  $250  per  acre  gross. 
An  estimated  yield  per  acre  is  about  1,200  dozen  bunches.  In  1912 
in  Orange  county,  1,230,830  dozen  bunches  filled  155,439  crates, 
which  were  shipped  in  910  carloads.  The  average  cost  of  growing 
the  crop  is  placed  at  $60  per  acre. 

Varieties. — Formerly  the  White  Plume  was  the  chief  variety 
grown  for  shipment,  but  it  is  now  chiefly  used  where  an  early  crop 
is  particularly  desired.  The  Golden  Self-blanching  is  now  chiefly 
grown,  especially  in  the  Orange  county  district.  It  will  be  well  for 
home  growers  to  try  also  some  of  the  higher  quality  varieties  offered 
by  the  seedsmen  when  they  are  ready  to  take  particular  pains  to 
grow  them  well. 

Celery  Blight. — Occasionally  atmospheric  conditions  favor  the 
growth  of  a  leaf  fungus  known  as  celery  blight,  and  great  losses 
have  resulted  in  some  years.  Recent  experience  shows  that  the 
blight  is  subject  to  control  by  spraying  the  plants  with  the  Bordeaux 
mixture  as  soon  as  signs  of  the  incroachment  of  the  disease  appear, 
or  when  weather  conditions  indicate  the  danger  to  be  imminent. 
Special  publications  on  this  subject  can  be  had  from  the  University 
Experiment  Station  at  Berkeley. 

CELERIAC. 

The  turnip-rooted  celery  is  very  desirable  for  cooking  and 
salad  purposes.  It  -is  grown  in  nearly  the  same  way  as  ordinary 
celery  except  that  it  is  allowed  to  make  free  top  growth  without 
blanching,  as  the  root  is  the  edible  part.  The  Large  or  Giant  Smooth 
Prague  is  the  variety  chiefly  grown. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 
CHICORY  AND  ENDIVE. 

LARGE  ROOTED  CHICORY. — Cichorium  intybus. 
French,   chicoree   sauvage ;    German,   cichorie ;   Danish,   sichorie;    Italian, 
cicoria;    Spanish,    achicoria ;    Portuguese,    chicoria. 

THE  ENDIVE. — Chicoria  endivia. 

French,    chicoree    endive;    German,    endivien ;    Dutch,    andijvie;    Danish, 
endivien ;   Italian,  indivia ;   Spanish,  endivia. 

The  chicory  plant  cuts  no  figure  at  present  in  the  general  gar- 
dening of  Californians.  The  use  of  the  blanched  leaves,  forced  in 
the  dark  from  mature  roots  bedded  in  sand,  is  confined  to  a  few 
foreigners  who  know  the  barbe-de-capucin  of  the  French  or  the 
ufitloof  of  the  Germans.  It  is  a  delicious  vegetable,  either  raw, 
boiled,  or  as  a  salad.  Nor  are  the  leaves  in  their  natural  state  much 
used  here  for  salad.  Both  of  these  uses  of  the  plant  should  be  more 
widely  known  in  California,  for  the  cultivated  growth  of  the  roots 
in  this  state  is  very  fine,  and  for  running  wild,  as  an  escape  from 
flower  garden  culture,  it  might  be  denounced  as  a  vile  weed  were 
not  its  large  blue  flowers  so  beautiful  upon  the  yellow  of  our  dry 
summer  fields  and  roadsides. 

Viewing  the  plant  as  yielding  a  root  rather  than  a  foliage 
crop,  it  has  been  of  much  importance  in  this  state.  The  root,  sliced, 
dried,  roasted  and  coarsely  ground,  is  the  "chicory"  of  commerce — 
the  adulterant  of  coffee  which  nearly  every  one  denounces  in  theory 
and  many  enjoy  in  practice;  for  the  occurrence  of  absolutely  pure 
coffee  is  so  restricted  that  it  often,  at  first,  offends  the  palate  of  the 
unaccustomed  drinker.  California  chicory  growers  for  years  con- 
tested the  American  markets  with  German  chicory,  and  a  very 
capacious  factory  was  in  operation  near  Stockton  for  more  than 
twenty-five  years,  and  at  one  time  there  was  another  near  Sacra- 
mento. The  vicissitudes  of  tariff  legislation  have  made"  the  business 
uncertain,  sometimes  very  profitable,  sometimes  not,  according  as 

(209) 


210  CALIFORNIA   VEGETABLES 

the  German  product  entered  free  or  paid  duty.  If  the  tariff  would 
maintain  a  favorable  attitude,  California  could  furnish  cheap  coffee 
for  the  whole  country  and  beet-sugar  for  its  sweetening  besides. 
For  the  last  few  years  however  the  business  has  been  much  reduced 
and  depressed.  For  the  home-grower  of  coffee  counterfeits,  the 
chicory  plant  offers  a  better  material  than  the  "coffee  bean"  and 
other  substitutes  which  are  offered,  but  all  substitutes  have  had  a 
hard  road  under  the  pure  food  laws.  The  growth  of  the  plant  and 
its  preparation  for  the  breakfast  table  are  quite  simple. 

Chicory  grows  to  perfection  on  light  sedimentary  soils  which 
afford  the  root  opportunity  for  expansion,  and  retain  moisture 
enough  for  its  thrift  during  the  long,  dry  summer.  The  plant  is 
hardy  and  the  seed  is  usually  sown  in  February.  The  preparation 
of  the  soil,  sowing,  thinning,  weeding  and  cultivation,  are  identical 
with  the  same  operations  for  the  sugar  beet  already  described.  The 
expense  with  chicory  is,  at  present  at  least,  considerably  greater  than 
with  the  beet,  because  the  moist  land  which  is  used  gives  more  per- 
sistent weed  growth  and  occasions  an  amount  of  hard  work  which 
is  appalling  to  an  observer.  The  crop  partly  compensates  for  this 
outlay,  because  the  value  per  ton  is  twice  as  great  as  the  sugar  beet, 
and  the  crop  is  not  enough  less  in  weight  to  equalize  things.  The 
average  crop  on  Roberts  island  near  Stockton  in  favorable  years  is 
about  ten  tons  to  the  acre,  though  some  years  the  average  will  go 
to  twelve  and  the  best  crops  to  fifteen  tons  per  acre.  The  factory 
price  for  the  fresh  root  has  usually  been  $10  per  ton.  The  cost  of 
growing,  including  rent,  ranges  from  $50  to  $80  per  acre.  The  soil 
on  Roberts  island  is  a  mixture  of  sediment  and  peat — deep,  rich, 
light  and  moist ;  most  admirably  adapted  to  the  root. 

Harvesting  and  Curing. — From  seed  sown  in  February,  har- 
vesting continues  from  the  middle  of  August  to  the  middle  of  Octo- 
ber. Early  gathering  is  necessary,  as  sun-dried  chicory  is  better 
than  that  cured  by  artificial  heat.  When  ready  for  gathering  a  plow 
is  run  along  each  side  of  the  plants  with  subsoil  cutter  and  lifter 
attached,  which  loosens  the  roots  so  that  they  can  be  easily  lifted 
from  the  soil  by  the  hand  clean  and  ready  for  the  cutting  machine. 
This  operation  is  like  the  gathering  of  sugar  beets,  and  the  topping 
or  removal  of  the  leaves  is  the  same. 

When  they  reach  the  factory  the  roots  are  placed  in  the  machine, 
which  cuts  them  into  cubic  blocks  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  size. 
The  drying  platform  comes  in  use  next,  and  when  the  chicory  has 


ENDIVE    CULTURE  211 

been  dried  as  far  as  sun  power  will  dry  it,  it  is  placed  in  the  roasters, 
each  holding  two  barrels,  where  it  is  roasted  as  coffee  is  before  being 
ground.  From  the  roasters  it  goes  to  the  mill,  where  it  is  ground, 
put  in  barrels,  and  thus  becomes  the  chicory  of  commerce. 

The  preparation  of  chicory  for  home  use  is  a  very  simple 
operation  and  can  be  done  with  ordinary  kitchen  appliances. 

The  variety  grown  is  the  "large-rooted  Magdeburg,"  with 
leaves  entire  and  upright. 

THE  ENDIVE. 

Though  botanically  a  chicory,  the  endive  in  its  uses  is  closely 
allied  with  lettuce  and  is  chiefly  useful  during  the  frosty  period  of 
the  year,  for  then  its  flavor  is  likely  to  be  better  than  that  of  lettuce, 
because  it  is  able  to  grow  more  rapidly  with  low  temperatures.  As, 
however,  there  is  so  much  of  California  which  does  favor  rapid 
winter  growth  of  lettuce  the  endive  is  correspondingly  restricted. 
Still  in  localities  with  heavy  rainfall  and  long  stretches  of  chilly 
winter  weather,  the  endive  will  give  good  supplies  of  salad  material 
and  should  be  better  known.  It  is  also  valuable  as  a  boiled  vegetable 
possessing  a  distinctive  flavor  which  is  generally  acceptable,  and 
used  in  this  latter  form  it  is  quite  a  valuable  addition  to  such  plants 
as  Swiss  Chard  and  Spinach. 

As  a  salad  plant  the  value  of  endive  depends  largely  upon  its 
being  properly  grown  and  thoroughly  well  blanched.  Blanching 
induces  delicacy  and  tenderness  of  eating  and  can  probably  be  best 
effected  by  bunching  up  the  leaves  and  tying  with  string  or  raffia, 
or  by  spreading  hay  or  straw  thickly  over  the  plants.  Some  care 
must  be  given  to  the  proper  blanching  of  the  plants,  for  unless  this 
is  successfully  accomplished  endive  is  not  likely  to  be  appreciated. 

The  plant  is  easy  of  culture,  the  methods  being  essentially  those 
described  for  lettuce,  but  chiefly  sown  in  summer  and  early  fall  for 
use  in  the  rainy  season.  The  following  varieties  most  largely  used 
in  California : 

Green  curled :  very  curly,  midrib  whitish,  leaves  finely  divided. 

White  curled :  yellowish  green,  very  curly  and  attractive  looking. 

Escarole  or  Batavian :  leaves  wider  and  thicker,  dull  green,  a  good 
variety  for  boiling. 

Staghorn :  strong-growing,  leaves  curly  but  less  finely  divided  and  thicker, 
also  good  for  cooking. 


CHAPTER    XX. 

CORN. 

SWEET  CORN. — Zea  mays. 

French,   mais   sucre;   German,  mais;    Dutch,    Turksche    tarwe;    Italian, 
grano  turco;  Spanish,  maiz;  Portuguese,  milho. 

California  cannot  claim  to  be  a  large  producer  of  corn,  though 
it  does  grow  large  corn  and  has  a  long  green  corn  season.  Of  the 
summer  grains  corn  is  produced  in  least  amount,  because  the  others 
can  make  winter  growth  and  corn  cannot,  and  they  mature  at  about 
the  time  when  corn  can  be  safely  planted.  They  pass  the  dry  sea- 
son in  the  sack  while  corn  has  to  endure  it  in  the  field  and  does  not 
take  kindly  to  it.  Dry  heat  puts  it  in  distress  which  irrigation  does 
not  wholly  relieve.  In  the  place  of  corn  on  the  interior  plains  im- 
proved varieties  of  sorghum  are  now  largely  grown  both  for  the 
grain  and  the  forage. 

But  while  this  is  true  there  are  regions  in  which  magnificent 
corn  is  grown.  These  are  usually  moist  lowlands  from  the  valleys 
north  of  the  bay  of  San  Francisco  southward  to  San  Diego;  near 
enough  to  the  coast  to  catch  something  of  atmospheric  humidity 
from  the  ocean,  and  still  with  summer  heat  enough  to  suit  this 
warmth-loving  plant.  There  are  also  great  corn  lands  in  the  river 
bottoms  of  the  interior  valley,  where  the  drought  is  less  than  on 
the  plains,  and  in  the  low  moist  lands  of  the  foot-hill  and  mountain 
valleys  as  well.  In  all  these  places  and  where  similar  conditions  are 
produced  by  irrigation,  corn  reaches  great  dimensions. 

Of  course  corn  as  a  vegetable  is  somewhat  different  from  corn 
as  a  grain.  So  also  is  corn  as  a  green  forage  plant.  For  "roasting 
ears,"  and  for  green  forage,  ripening  conditions  are  not  essential, 
and  for  these  purposes  the  plant  can  be  carried  nearer  to  the  coast 
than  for  a  grain  crop,  and  in  the  warmer  regions  it  can  be  planted 
late  for  a  longer  succession  than  for  grain  if  moisture  enough  is 
provided.  It  is  not  uncommon  therefore  in  the  interior  to  have 
good  roasting  ears  at  Thanksgiving  or  even  in  December  at  eleva- 
tions or  in  other  places  where  early  frosts  are  seldom  known.  Thus 
(212) 


SOIL   AND   PREPARATION    FOR   CORN  213 

corn  as  a  vegetable  in  California  is  a  greater  affair  than  corn  as  a 
grain.  It  would  have  even  a  greater  value  as  a  garden  plant  were  it 
not  for  the  ravages  of  the  ear-worm,  which  so  far  defies  insectides 
and  which  takes  its  full  share  of  the  crop  at  the  times  when  its  appe- 
tite is  good.  It  is  usually  the  early  corn  which  suffers  most  from 
this  pest. 

Soil. — The  requirements  of  Indian  corn  are  so  widely  known 
that  it  will  hardly  be  necessary  to  enter  minutely  into  them.  The 
soil  should  be  preferably  a  rich,  sandy  loam,  sufficiently  retentive  of 
moisture  and  yet  easy  to  keep  in  fine  tilth.  Satisfactory  results  can, 
however,  be  secured  on  quite  a  variety  of  soils  if  warmth  and  moist- 
ure can  be  assured.  In  the  heavier  soils  there  is  much  advantage  in 
plowing  under  the  disintegrated  roots  of  previous  growths  of  weeds 
or  crop-plants  and  the  best  corn  often  comes  here  as  elsewhere  on 
newly-broken  land. 

Preparation  for  Corn. — As  the  corn  plant  resents  drought  so 
strenuously  it  is  very  important  that  preparation  of  the  land  should 
include  efforts  for  thorough  moistening  of  the  land  by  rainfall  or 
irrigation,  followed  by  surface  treatment  to  prevent  evaporation.  All 
that  has  been  urged  in  these  directions  in  the  chapter  on  cultivation 
has  especial  pertinence  in  preparation  for  the  corn  crop.  It  is  vain 
to  expect  to  succeed  by  shallow  cultivation  except  where  the  land  is 
naturally  sub-irrigated,  and  even  on  such  land  there  must  be  deep 
working  enough  to  place  the  seed  below  the  dry  surface  layer.  Slack 
preparation  on  lands  which  naturally  dry  out  in  the  summer  assures 
failure  and  disappointment. 

Planting. — Corn  is  a  very  tender  plant  and  must  be  planted  not 
only  after  frosts  are  over,  but  after  the  soil  has  become  well  warmed 
and  warmth  may  be  expected  to  continue.  The  date  of  planting 
must  be  determined  by  the  local  attainment  of  these  conditions.  From 
this  time  onward  through  the  summer,  planting  may  be  done  if 
moisture  enough  can  be  retained  in  the  soil.  For  this  reason,  on 
moist  or  irrigated  land,  corn  is  planted  after  winter-growing  crops 
are  cleared  away,  and  large  yields  are  secured.  Near  the  coast 
where  the  corn  plant  is  constantly  refreshed  by  ocean  moisture  in 
the  air,  it  will  make  good  green  growth  with  what  remains  from 
winter  rainfall  on  land  from  which  a  crop  of  beets  or  carrots,  sown 
the  previous  season,  has  been  cleared  away.  In  such  rotation  the 
land  should  be  plowed  as  early  as  possible  after  the  roots  have  been 
taken  off,  to  keep  down  the  growth  of  grass  and  weeds  and  retain 


214  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES 

moisture  till  the  proper  time  for  planting  corn,  which  will  depend 
a  good  deal  on  the  wetness  or  dryness  of  the  season.  The  earliness 
of  the  first  planting  will  depend  mainly  on  the  fitness  of  the  land 
and  the  situation,  but  for  early  use,  some  early  variety  of  sweet 
corn  should  be  planted  as  soon  as  circumstances  are  favorable  for 
doing  so,  to  be  followed  by  several  successive  plantings,  say, 
through  May  and  June,  and  even  into  July. 

Growers  differ  as  to  the  advantages  of  growing  in  hills  or  in 
rows.  Hills  give  opportunity  to  cultivate  in  two  directions  with  the 
horse.  Rows  have  a  tendency  to  check  the  draft  of  dry  winds  when 
the  rows  run  at  right  angles  to  their  anticipated  direction.  The 
general  course  of  dry,  hot  summer  winds  is  from  north  to  south 
(except  where  given  a  different  trend  by  local  topography),  conse- 
quently east  and  west  rows  oppose  them  and  in  some  measure  shade 
the  soil  and  the  plant  better  from  sun  heat.  But  when  prevailing 
practice  shows  that  the  ground  in  the  row  usually  goes  untouched 
by  tools  and  consequently  becomes  hard  and  dry,  it  is  quite  a  ques- 
tion whether  the  separation  of  the  plants  into  hills  for  free  culti- 
vation both  ways  is  not  on  the  whole  much  the  better  method.  But 
choice  may  be  governed  by  local  conditions. 

Distance  in  corn  planting  depends  upon  the  habit  of  growth  of 
the  variety.  Small  early  kinds  may  be  planted  in  hills  three  feet 
apart  each  way  or  in  rows  three  feet  apart,  but  larger  kinds  may 
need  wider  spacing,  even  up  to  five  feet.  Seed  should  always  be 
planted  in  excess :  five  or  six  kernels  to  the  hill,  to  be  thinned  to 
the  three  or  four  strongest  plants ;  four  inches  apart  in  the  row,  to 
be  thinned  to  eight  or  ten  inches  according  to  size  of  variety. 

For  laying  off  hills  in  straight  lines  after  plowing  and  harrow- 
ing, a  marker  should  be  used  both  ways  and  the  corn  planted  at 
the  intersections  of  the  lines  either  with  the  hoe  or  the  hand  corn 
planter.  For  planting  in  rows  the  drill  attachment  or  hand  dropping 
in  the  furrow  is  used,  followed  by  the  harrow. 

Depth  of  planting  depends  upon  the  soil  and  the  situation  for 
the  reasons  given  in  the  chapter  on  propagation.  On  very  light 
soils  in  a  dry  region  very  deep  covering  is  admissible  because  the 
few  inches  at  the  surface  count  for  nothing,  but  on  heavier  soils 
in  good  moisture,  and  especially  early  in  the  season,  shallow  cover- 
ing is  preferable. 

For  succession  there  should  be  planting  done  in  the  garden 
every  two  weeks  during  the  local  season. 


216  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES 

Cultivation. — If  deep  working  of  the  soil  is  the  foundation 
of  a  corn  crop  as  stated,  frequent  summer  cultivation  is  the  build- 
ing itself.  If  the  ground  is  well  laid  off,  the  cultivator  can  be  used 
to  advantage,  even  before  the  corn  shows  up  to  destroy  weeds  and 
loosen  the  surface.  Afterwards  the  cultivator  should  be  run  at 
very  short  intervals,  for  the  hot  dry  season  is  always  right  at  the 
heels  of  the  corn  planter  and  should  never  be  allowed  to  catch  up 
with  it.  Some  of  the  finest  corn  we  ever  saw  was  grown  in  Orange 
county  in  this  way:  The  land  was  plowed  four  times,  irrigated 
twice,  hoed  twice,  and  cultivated  and  worked  in  a  most  thorough 
manner.  In  the  whole  process  of  raising  the  corn  the  grower  went 
over  the  land  no  less  than  sixteen  times.  It  is  hardly  to  be  expected 
that  such  diligence  will  be  general,  but  it  has  to  be  recognized  as  the 
price  of  the  best  results. 

Varieties. — Every  one  wants  early  corn,  and  the  early  varieties 
are  about  the  only  kinds  that  can  be  grown  on  some  uplands  with- 
out irrigation.  They  are  small  in  growth,  rapid  in  ear  and  best 
wherever  the  season  is  shortened  either  by  lack  of  moisture  or  heat. 
Some  later  varieties  are  sweeter,  however,  and  larger  in  the  ear,  and 
should  be  grown  wherever  possible. 

Early  Cory:   very  early,  good-sized  ear,   small  cob  well  filled. 

Golden  Bantam:  very  early,  ears  medium  size;  kernels  yellow,  rich  and 
delicious — a  surprise  to  those  unaccustomed  to  such  quality  in  a  yellow  corn. 

Crosby's  Early  Sugar:  very  early,  short  ear,  sweet  and  productive. 

Early  Minnesota:  very  early,  good  ear,  white  cob,  excellent  quality. 

Early  Mammoth :  medium  early,  largest  ears  of  the  early  varieties,  cob 
white,  large  and  well  filled,  productive  and  of  good  flavor. 

Perry's  Hybrid:  Another  early  variety,  ears  large  and  full,  grain  white, 
cob  red,  plant  rather  tall. 

Black  Mexican:  ears  rather  short,  cook  white,  very  sweet,  ripe  kernel 
v  black. 

Country  Gentleman:   large  ears,  very  sweet,  tall,  very  productive. 

Golden  Cream :  a  yellow  country  gentleman  of  high  quality. 

Stowell's  Evergreen:  a  standard  late  variety,  commended  by  all,  large 
ears,  deep  grain,  tender  and  sweet,  a  strong  grower  and  productive. 

Forage  Corn. — Sweet  corn  is  constantly  increasing  in  popu- 
larity over  common  field  corn  both  for  green  and  cured  forage  for 
cows.  Late  Mammoth  and  Stowell's  Evergreen  are  largely  used 
for  this  purpose.  In  farm  garden  practice  more  attention  should 
usually  be  paid  to  the  forage  value  of  the  stalk.  If  cut  and  cured 
as  each  stalk  is  robbed  of  its  ears,  it  is  more  nutritious  than  if  al- 
lowed to  bleach  in  the  sun  until  the  whole  field  is  cleaned  up. 


CORN    FOR   SILAGE  217 

Field  and  Silage  Corn. — The  growth  of  corn  in  California 
as  a  grain  or  silage  crop  is  out  of  the  view  of  this  treatise.  An  in- 
teresting publication  on  the  subject  can  be  had  from  the  Experi- 
ment Station  at  Berkeley.  During  the  last  decade  silos  have  mul- 
tiplied in  various  parts  of  the  state  and  a  much  greater  acreage  of 
field  corn  has  been  grown  than  formerly.  It  is  chiefly  grown  in 
rows  and  somewhat  less  carefully  than  corn  for  grain,  because  the 
plant  is  not  required  to  meet  the  strenuous  requirements  of  grain 
for  ripening.  Still  the  better  the  growing  the  better  the  crop.  A 
hardy,  vigorous,  tall  growth  is  important  for  silo  filling.  Varieties 
chiefly  grown  are  the  Learning,  which  well  meets  these  points  and 
is  the  most  popular  of  the  yellow  varieties  in  California,  and  San- 
ford  White  Flint,  which  holds  about  the  same  place  among  white 
sorts.  The  Red  Cob  Ensilage  is  a  strong  growing,  short  jointed 
and  leafy  variety  especially  selected  for  silo  purposes. 


CHAPTER    XXL 

THE  CUCUMBER. 

CUCUMBER. — Cucumis  sativus. 

French,    concombre ;     German,     gurke ;     Dutch,     komkommer ;     Danish, 
agurken ;   Italian,  cetriolo ;   Spanish  cohombro ;   Portuguese,  pepino. 

The  cucumber  is  rather  an  exacting  plant  and  seldom  yields 
anything  but  disappointment  to  the  grower  who  does  not  give  it 
the  most  watchful  care  and  generous  supplies  of  food  and  drink. 
It  is  very  sensitive  to  frosts,  nor  does  it  thrive  in  low  temperatures 
even  if  free  from  frost.  It  rejoices  in  heat,  but  it  abhors  drought. 
It  is  not  content,  like  some  members  of  its  botanical  family,  to 
thrive  in  dry  heat  if  it  can  find  moisture  below :  the  heat  reflected 
from  a  dry  surface  and  interior  sunshine  beaming  through  dry  air 
brings  distress  to  its  foliage.  For  these  reasons  it  usually  resents 
location  on  interior  plains  unless  it  can  have  abundant  moisture  and 
some  protection  from  heat — such  at  least  as  locally  may  come  from 
modifying  the  air  immediately  around  it,  by  evaporation  from  water 
standing  near.  Modified  interior  conditions  such  as  are  found  on 
river-side  lands  or  moist  lowlands  often  yield  fine  growth  and  pro- 
ductiveness, but  even  there  it  is  often  necessary  to  keep  the  moisture 
close  to  the  plant  by  irrigation.  In  coast  valleys  where  heat  and 
moisture  are  well  balanced  and  on  soil  rich  and  moist  by  cultivation 
the  plant  may  be  productive  enough  without  irrigation,  but  as  a  rule 
even  in  parts  of  coast  valleys  where  the  heat  runs  high,  as  ocean 
influences  are  reduced,  not  only  is  occasional  irrigation  needed,  but 
constant  supplies  are  the  price  of  thrift  in  the  plant.  For  these  rea- 
sons the  placing  of  cucumbers  along  the  main  ditches  where  water 
frequently  or  always  flows,  or  the  use  of  a  raised  bed  with  water 
flowing  on  the  ridge,  is  the  surest  way  to  make  the  plants  satisfac- 
tory and  prolific  where  the  heat  runs  high.  And  yet,  as  stated, 
there  are  considerable  areas  in  different  parts  of  the  state  where 
conditions  are  so  favorable  that  field  growth  of  cucumbers  for  the 
(218) 


CONDITIONS    FOR    CUCUMBERS  219 

market  and  for  the  pickle  factories,  is  feasible  without  irrigation. 
There  are  moist  lowlands,  rich  and  warm,  where  the  foliage  does 
not  show  burnt  edges  and  where  the  free  growth  of  vine  is  marvel- 
ous to  one  who  has  tried  to  push  the  plant  in  places  too  trying  for  it. 
It  is  also  possible  in  frostless  regions  where  heat  conies  early  in  the 
spring,  to  find  conditions  for  an  early  crop  which  is  disposed  of 
before  trying  summer  conditions  come  on.  Early  spring  condi- 
tions in  California  are  widely  favorable  to  the  plant  did  not  the  frost 
factor  intrude.  Autumn  growing  is  also  practicable  where  moisture 
is  adequate,  for  then  heat  and  drought  are  modified.  Cucumbers 
from  the  open  ground  at  Thanksgiving  or  later  are  common  in 
some  regions. 

Soil — Cucumbers  require  a  rich  soil,  and  it  must  be  retentive 
of  moisture,  for  the  reasons  stated,  unless  water  is  to  be  constantly 
supplied.  A  rather  light  soil  which  warms  up  early  is  preferable, 
but  heavy  soil  can  be  readily  adapted  to  cucumbers  on  a  small  scale 
by  free  use  of  well-rotted  manure  thoroughly  mixed.  A  free  loam, 
not  disposed  to  bake,  is  the  best  soil. 

Preparation  of  Soil. — Land  from  which  a  well-cultivated  root 
crop  has  been  removed  for  winter  use  can  be  easily  put  into  condi- 
tion for  cucumbers  by  good  deep  spring  plowing  and  harrowing, 
to  retain  moisture.  New  land  should  receive  such  fall  and  winter 
treatment  as  has  been  prescribed  for  bean  planting,  so  as  to  secure 
in  spring  as  good  tilth  and  moisture  retention  as  possible. 

Planting  and  Cultivation. — Cucumbers  are  usually  grown  in 
hills,  from  four  to  six  feet  apart  each  way.  Planting  should  not 
be  done  until  the  soil  becomes  warm  and  frost  injury  is  over ;  then 
planting  five  or  six  seeds  in  a  hill,  covering  as  lightly  as  can  be 
trusted  to  retain  moisture  until  the  plants  take  hold.  As  soon  as 
the  plants  appear,  cultivation  must  begin,  using  the  horse  between 
the  rows  and  the  hoe  around  the  plants.  The  surface  must  be  kept 
mellow  and  free  from  weeds.  If  the  plants  all  grow  select  the  best 
two  or  three  and  pull  out  the  others.  Continue  cultivation  as  long 
as  it  is  possible  to  stir  the  soil  without  injuring  the  vines. 

Gathering. — Frequent  gathering  of  the  cucumbers  as  they 
reach  satisfactory  size  is  essential  to  the  long  bearing  of  the  vines. 
None  should  be  allowed  to  ripen  except  on  vines  planted  for  that 
purpose,  and  all  imperfect  specimens  should  be  taken  off  as  soon 
as  seen. 


220  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

Cucumbers  Under  Cover. — Very  little  is  done  in  California  in 
house-growing  of  cucumbers.  A  little  forcing  is  done  by  market 
gardeners,  but  the  business  is  risky  because  of  the  slight  demand 
and  the  fact  that  open-air  cucumbers  from  early  regions  come  so 
soon  after  the  late  crop  from  frostless  places  is  disposed  of.  Grow- 
ing under  cover  of  glass  or  cloth  is  done  without  providing  artifi- 
cial heat.  The  natural  temperatures  and  protection  from  frost  are 
relied  upon.  It  is  quite  common  to  start  plants  under  cover,  and 
plant  out  early  even  at  risk  of  replanting.  Growers  usually  keep  a 
stock  of  plants  ready  for  this  purpose. 

Garden  Culture  of  Cucumbers. — In  the  garden  very  elaborate 
arrangements  may  be  made  to  secure  early  cucumbers.  Growing 
the  plants  on  inverted  sod  and  planting  out  as  a  whole  hill,  as  de- 
scribed in  Chapter  XI,  is  satisfactory.  Planting  on  the  sides  of 
ditches  has  already  been  mentioned.  Growing  hills  or  single  plants 
in  tin  cans  or  other  receptacles  and  protecting  them  until  safe  to 
plant  out  is  also  an  easy  way  to  get  an  earlier  crop  than  otherwise. 
This  method  is  in  fact  employed  on  quite  a  large  scale  by  Chinese 
growers  in  the  Marysville  region  of  the  Sacramento  valley  in  this 
way :  About  the  latter  third  of  February,  the  time  varying  with  the 
season,  the  seeds  are  planted  in  old  tin  cans  that  have  otherwise  out- 
lived their  usefulness,  to  give  the  plants  a  good  start  in  spite  of 
frosts.  Rich  soil  with  lots  of  manure  is  used  in  the  cans,  and  after 
the  plants  are  a  couple  of  inches  high,  and  weather  permits,  the  cans 
are  split  open  so  as  to  let  the  roots  out  without  disturbing  the  soil, 
and  set  out  in  raised  beds,  where  they  start  bearing  about  the  mid- 
dle of  May.  The  cucumbers  are  picked  every  morning  and  are 
well  irrigated  and  the  next  morning  are  ready  to  pick  again.  They 
have  about  a  two  months  start  in  the  market  over  the  bay  districts 
and  the  San  Joaquin  truck  gardens. 

Some  use  is  made  of  deep  holes  partly  filled  with  tramped  horse 
manure  and  then  with  earth,  and  growing  plants  on  top  of  the  hill 
thus  formed,  protected  with  glass  or  cloth.  With  such  arrange- 
ments double  care  must  be  had  to  supply  enough  water.  The  south 
side  of  a  fence  or  building  is  a  good  place  for  fast  spring  growth. 
In  short,  moderate  heat,  copious  watering  and  rich  soil  are  the  se- 
crets of  good  cucumbers,  and  there  is  much  chance  for  ingenuity  in 
securing  these  conditions. 

For  Pickling. — Cucumbers  for  pickling  are  largely  grown  in 
the  early  autumn  from  midsummer  planting.  As  stated  before, 


VARIETIES    OF    CUCUMBERS  221 

where  irrigation  can  be  had,  autumn  temperatures  are  often  very 
favorable  for  the  plant. 

Varieties. — Although  our  county  fairs  may  be  counted  upon  to 
bring  to  view  almost  every  shape  and  length  of  cucumber  which 
amateurs  delight  in,  very  few  kinds  constitute  the  crop  grown  for 
use: 

Arlington  White  Spine :  good  size,  straight  and  symmetrical,  holds  green 
color  well,  very  productive  and  early;  used  both  for  market  and  pickling. 

Long  White  Spine :  a  standard  mid-season  variety,  large,  dark  green, 
tender,  white  crisp  flesh. 

Klondike :  similar  to  Long  White  Spine,  specially  favored  by  southern 
California  market  growers. 

Long  Green :  an  old  standard  late  variety ;  dark  green ;  firm  and  crisp ; 
good  form ;  a  favorite  for  pickling. 

Green  Prolific  or  Boston  Pickling :  early  and  productive ;  small  size ;  crisp 
and  tender ;  popular  for  pickling. 

Pera :  long,  smooth  skin,  good  green  color,  and  flesh  white  and  crisp ; 
flavor  excellent ;  seed  cavity  small ;  rather  late. 

Cumberland :  hardy,  vigorous  and  prolific ;  very  desirable  for  pickling 
because  very  good  in  all  sizes. 

Chicago  Pickling :  medium  long,  dark  green,  rounded  ends ;  a  popular 
pickling  variety. 

Cool  and  Crisp :  especially  favored  as  a  garden  variety ;  green  but  ripening 
white. 


CHAPTER    XXII. 

EGG  PLANT. 

EGG  PLANT. — Solanum  melongena. 

French,    aubergine;    German,     eierpflanze;     Flemish,     eierplant;     Italian, 
petonciano;   Spanish,  berengena ;   Portuguese,  bringela. 

Egg  plant  is  one  of  the  great  vegetables  in  California;  it  is 
great  in  the  size  and  quality,  which  are  easily  attained,  and  great  in 
its  popularity.  It  is  doubtful  whether  any  part  of  the  world  makes 
such  free  use  of  the  plant,  and  enjoys  it  through  so  long  a  season. 
Although  the  plant  is  properly  classed  as  tender,  and  is  somewhat 
exacting  in  the  starting  of  the  seed  and  in  transplanting,  it  grow? 
riotously  when  well  established  in  a  favorable  location  and  soil ; 
fruits  freely  and  continuously,  and  it  is  not  unusual  to  find  at  Cali- 
fornia fairs  specimens  of  six  pounds  weight,  while  fruit  of  two 
and  three  pounds  constitute  common  stock  with  the  vegetable 
peddlers. 

Location  and  Soil. — Egg  plant  can  be  successfully  grown  al- 
most everywhere  in  California,  but  there  will  naturally  be  much 
variation  in  its  season,  according  to  the  local  occurrence  of  the 
frost-free  period.  In  the  frostless  belts,  described  in  previous  chap- 
ters, it  is  feasible  to  start  the  plants  in  the  autumn  and  secure  a 
very  early  crop;  in  most  places,  however,  the  plants  can  best  be 
grown  with  bottom  heat  in  the  winter,  and  fruiting  secured  all 
through  the  summer  and  fall,  if  the  nights  are  rather  warm  and  the 
day  heat  not  too  fitful. 

As  the  plant  will  endure  very  high  heat  if  well  supplied  with 
moisture,  and  as  it  resists  drought,  when  well  established,  it  is  well 
adapted  to  interior  conditions.  It  succeeds  admirably  in  the  inter- 
ior bottom  lands  if  water  is  not  excessive,  and  is  perfectly  at  home 
as  well  in  the  coast  regions,  both  valley  and  uplands,  if  adequately 
watered.  It  is  not  very  exacting  in  soil  character,  and  can  be  safely 
undertaken  on  any  good  garden  land  if  well  cultivated  and  manured ; 
for  the  plant  is  a  strong  feeder  and  should  grow  fast  and  regularly. 
(222) 


CULTURE    OF    EGG    PLANT  223 

Growing  the  Plants. — Egg  plants  can  be  easily  grown  from 
seed  by  the  use  of  seed  boxes,  with  bottom  heat  or  in  an  ordinary 
hot-bed,  all  of  which  are  described  in  the  chapter  on 'propagation. 
The  seed  should  be  covered  about  half  an  inch.  Extra  regard  must 
be  had  for  maintaining  a  uniform  and  rather  high  temperature  for 
the  starting  and  early  growth  of  the  seedlings.  Transplanting  the 
seedlings,  into  other  seed-beds  or  cold  frames,  twice  before  planting 
out  renders  them  more  stocky.  Planting  out  should  only  be  done 
when  the  soil  is  warm  and  in  good  moist  condition,  for  it  is  necessary 
that  the  seedlings  should  quickly  take  hold  and  proceed  vigorously 
afterwards.  Plants  may  be  grown  from  three  to  four  feet  apart 
each  way. 

After  Treatment. — The  best  of  cultivation  must  be  given  to 
prevent  any  check  or  setback  in  the  growth  of  the  plants.  Irriga- 
tion must  be  used  as  necessary  to  advance  this  result.  It  is  desirable 
that  the  plant  should  be  prevented  from  setting  too  many  fruits,  and 
pinching  off  the  terminals  to  prevent  too  great  running  out  is  often 
advisable.  It  is  also  desirable  to  dispose  the  fruits  so  they  do  not 
enlarge  upon  each  other. 

Varieties. — The  New  York  Improved  Purple  is  the  favorite 
variety  and  is  chiefly  grown.  Black  Beauty,  a  deep  purple,  a  little 
earlier  but  usually  not  quite  so  large  is  also  popular.  Other  sorts, 
though  much  less  popular,  are  the  Early  Long  Purple  and  the  Black 
Pekin.  The  White  Pearl  is  the  best  of  the  whites  which  are,  how- 
ever, in  less  demand.  The  Tree  Egg  Plant  is  hardy,  upright  and 
escapes  some  ills  of  lower  growing  varieties  in  bad  weather. 


CHAPTER    XXIII. 
LETTUCE. 

CABBAGE  LETTUCE. — Lactuca  capitata. 

French  laitues  pommees;  German,  kopfsalat;  Dutch,  kropsalad;  Italian, 
lattuga  a  cappucio ;  Spanish,  lechuga  acogollada ;  Portuguese,  alface  repolhada. 

Cos  LETTUCE. — Idem. 

French,  laitues  romaines ;  German,  bind-salat;  Dutch,  roomsche  latouw ; 
Italian,  lattuga  romana;  Spanish,  lechuga  romana;  Portuguese,  alface  romana. 

Lettuce  is  emphatically  a  perfectly  satisfactory  garden  plant  in 
California.  It  is  unaffected  by  the  ordinary  winter  temperatures  of 
our  valleys  and  foothills,  and  it  endures  the  heat,  if  moisture  is  ade- 
quate, with  only  slight  protection  from  the  burning  sun.  It  withers 
and  dies  or  it  becomes  tough  and  worthless,  in  the  face  of  drought, 
it  is  true,  but  any  gardener  who  does  not  arrange  better  for  its 
growth  does  not  deserve  to  enjoy  its  refreshing  crispness.  Who- 
ever will  provide  the  simplest  arrangement  to  relieve  its  roots  from 
cold,  standing  water  in  winter,  or  who  will 'keep  its  roots  moist  and 
afford  slight  shade  for  its  tender  leaves  from  the  interior  heat  in 
summer,  need  never  miss  a  day  of  lettuce-gathering.  And  even 
these  slight  aids  from  the  grower  are  not  needed  everywhere.  In 
regions  naturally  moderate,  both  in  moisture  and  heat,  and  with  a 
few  weeks  of  watering  in  midsummer,  succession  of  lettuce  is  un- 
broken throughout  the  year  on  any  good  garden  soil  which  is  well 
cultivated.  There  is  little  lettuce  forcing  in  California  and,  of  course, 
with  such  natural  conditions,  there  is  small  need  of  any,  and  yet 
during  recent  years,  owing  to  the  constant  demand  for  lettuce  all 
the  year,  because  of  the  increased  importance  of  salads  in  the  menu, 
there  has  arisen  new  opportunity  for  forcing  and  shipment  of  lettuce 
considerable  distances  by  rail  has  advanced  notably  during  the  last 
decade.  In  central  California  cities  during  the  season  of  heaviest 
rains  it  is  hard  to  get  bright,  clean  lettuces  from  local  market  gar- 
dens, and  much  is  brought  from  the  Los  Angeles  district  where  there 
(224) 


LETTUCE    ALL    THE    YEAR  225 

is  less  rain  and  more  winter  sunshine.  It  is  to  be  expected  that  as 
population  increases  there  will  be  a  better  opportunity  for  local 
forcing  enterprises  which  can  be  conducted  with  slight  structures 
and  a  minimum  of  artificial  heat. 

Culture. — Lettuce  can  be  sown  on  moist  ground  the  year  round. 
It  is  exceedingly  rapid  in  development  (from  seed  to  head  in  four- 
teen weeks  perhaps)  and  can  be  grown  as  a  catch  crop  among  slower 
growing  vegetables  at  all  times  of  the  year.  It  starts  readily  from 
the  seed,  and  the  most  common  practice  is  to  sow  a  thin  drill  of  it 
here  or  there,  as  interspace  is  to  be  for  a  short  time  unoccupied, 
thinning  the  plants  at  the  first  weeding  and  allowing  the  plants  to 
head  in  the  thinned  row.  This  is  the  simplest  practice,  and  will  be 
most  generally  followed  in  the  farm  garden.  And  yet  it  is  so  easy 
to  imitate  the  market  gardeners  and  put  in  transplanted  lettuces  here 
and  there,  wherever  an  unoccupied  corner  appears,  that  this  practice 
must  be  urged  even  for  the  simplest  gardening.  It  is  possible  to 
grow  about  thirty  thousand  heads  to  the  acre  by  proper  laying  off  - 
and  culture.  Plants  fourteen  inches  apart  in  rows  sixteen  inches 
apart  is  a  good  lay-out  for  hand  cultivation.  Transplanting  should 
be  done  when  the  ground  is  moist  and  irrigation  should  soon  follow 
planting  unless  rain  comes. 

Whenever  a  winter  or  early  spring  vegetable  is  cleared  away 
a  due  share  of  lettuce  should  go  in.  Wherever  a  summer  vegetable 
yields  the  ground,  the  soil  should  be  well  soaked  and  cultivated  and 
the  lettuce  should  not  be  overlooked.  As  soon  as  the  fall  rains  suf- 
ficiently wet  the  ground,  lettuce  should  be  among  the  first  sowings. 
And  before  the  winter  comes  on,  with  its  heavy  rains,  a  warm  ridge 
or  raised  bed  should  have  its  lettuce  covering  underway  so  that  mid- 
winter shall  not  lack  its  supply  of  salad.  And  in  February,  as  the 
ground  is  again  suited  for  flat  culture,  new  sewings  of  lettuce  should 
be  among  the  first  things  done.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  lettuce  is  to  be 
sown  all  the  year  and  plucked  all  the  year  in  California. 

It  is  not  necessary,  perhaps,  to  sow  lettuce  so  often  if  seed  beds 
are  prepared  so  that  they  will  readily  drain  away  winter  water  and 
have  slight  protection  from  cold  winds  in  the  winter  and  burning 
sun  in  summer.  From  these  beds  plants  can  be  taken  at  different 
times  as  land  is  available  for  planting  out,  just  as  cabbages  are  trans- 
planted, and  even  though  the  plants  have  attained  considerable  size 
in  the  seed-bed,  the  long  roots  can  be  shortened  a  little  and  they 
can  still  be  transplanted  to  good  moist  soil,  and  will  go  on  with  the 


CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 


VARIETIES    OF    LETTUCE 

heading  all  the  better  for  the  freer  space.  For  this  reason  plants 
should  not  be  too  thickly  pricked  out  in  beds — three  by  three  inches 
is  close  enough.  It  is  quite  practicable,  however,  to  transplant  di- 
rectly from  the  bed  in  which  the  start  was  made  from  the  seed. 

It  may  be  quicker  to  get  lettuce  with  the  loose-leaved  plants, 
but  the  heads  are  most  delicious,  and  all  should  learn  to  keep  the 
plants  in  good  thrift  until  they  become  full  and  solid  with  their 
crisp  and  delicious  contents.  Seed-beds  should  not  have  much  heat- 
ing material  in  this  climate.  It  is  better  for  the  plants  to  grow  slowly 
at  first,  and  after  the  rains  a  raised  bed  with  enough  fibrous  material 
and  well-spent  manure  will  furnish  a  long  succession  for  trans- 
planting. But  whether  the  ordinary  grower  will  undertake  this 
work  or  not,  let  him  have  lettuce  anyway — even  if  he  will  only  scat- 
ter seed  at  frequent  intervals  on  moist  ground  and  then  give  the 
plants  good  hoeing.  To  get  crisp,  tender  lettuce  the  plants  must 
be  pushed  along  with  rich  soil  and  good  cultivation  whatever  method 
of  growing  is  pursued.  The  rotting  of  lettuce  is  due  to  lack  of 
drainage  or  to  too  frequent  surface  watering,  and  this  should  be 
avoided. 

In  the  hot  parts  of  the  state,  where  the  summer  tries  the  plants, 
lettuce  should  be  planted  on  the  shady  side  of  tall  growing  vege- 
tables, and  then,  with  moisture  enough,  they  will  do  well.  Lath 
screens  or  other  devices  are,  of  course,  serviceable  if  one  prefers 
them.  But  do  not  be  content  with  a  little  lettuce  in  the  spring  and 
go  without  the  rest  of  the  year.  It  only  requires  a  little  ingenuity 
and  energy  and  water  to  have  crisp,  cooling  salad  all  summer,  when 
it  is  most  delicious  and  wholesome. 

Varieties. — There  is  almost  illimitable  variety  in  lettuce,  and 
inextricable  confusion  in  the  nomenclature  resulting  from  renaming 
by  seedsmen  and  others.  As  with  other  plants,  however,  a  few  va- 
rieties constitute  the  bulk  of  the  California  lettuce  product.  It  is 
customary  to  arrange  lettuce  varieties  in  two  groups ;  one  has  round- 
ish heads  and  includes  the  "cabbage"  varieties ;  "the  other  has  tall, 
elongated  heads  and  includes  the  "cos"  varieties.  There  is,  of  course, 
much  difference  in  the  density  of  the  heads,  and  some  are  quite  loose 
and  open,  but  the  close-heading  varieties  are  better  and  the  more 
suitable  for  market  handling.  In  California  the  cabbage  varieties 
very  largely  preponderate  over  the  cos  varieties,  and  the  non-heading 
or  "cutting  lettuces,"  or  curled  varieties,  are  not  widely  grown, 
though  they  may  be  found  useful  in  getting  the  quickest  foliage  from 


228  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

the  seed  sowing.  It  should  be  noted  that  compared  with  the  cab- 
bage type,  the  cos  lettuce  is  hardier  and  less  susceptible  to  frost;  it 
also  shows  more  ability  to  withstand  drought  and  is  also  less  liable 
to  sunburn,  the  last  two  features  making  it  better  adapted  to  hot  and 
dry  localities,  while  the  first  is  one  which  especially  recommends  its 
use  as  a  late  kind. 

Large  Rassion:  medium  sized,  round  head,  fine,  large,  solid,  and  white, 
crisp,  tender  and  of  fine  flavor;  not  as  fine  in  appearance  as  some  others, 
but  it  stands  handling  better,  and  is  very  good  for  shipping. 

Royal  Summer:  known  in  the  East  as  California  Cream  Butter,  large, 
solid,  round  heads,  light  green  outside,  creamy  yellow  within  ;*  stands  heat 
well,  particularly  popular  for  autumn  and  winter  use. 

Maximum  or  Immensity :  very  much  larger  than  the  foregoing  which 
it  resembles;  good  for  fall  and  winter  growth  and  a  heavy,  durable  shipping 
variety. 

Big  Boston:  a  light  green  cabbage  variety  with  light  brown  tinge  to 
the  leaves;  largely  grown  in  the  south  for  northern  shipments;  forms  a  fine 
head,  endures  temperature  changes  well. 

May  King :  a  very  early,  quick  heading  variety,  colored  like  Big  Boston ; 
good  for  spring  and  summer  use. 

White  Paris  Cos:  upright  grower,  with  long  head;  needs  tying  up  for 
blanching;  tender  and  crisp,  a  favorite  with  foreign  residents. 

Improved  Hanson:  heads  round,  very  solid  and  large,  green  outside  and 
white  within ;  flavor  fine ;  stands  heat  well ;  very  popular  for  house  gardens. 

Prize  Head:  an  early  variety  with  large,  loose  bunch,  remains  tender 
and  crisp  through  long  season;  flavor  excellent;  very  easily  grown. 

The  Morse:  large,  non-heading  variety  forming  a  large  bunch  of  loose 
leaves,  crisp  and  of  fine  flavor. 

Denver  Market:  early,  tight,  conical  head;  light  green,  leaves  curled 
and  crimped;  crisp  and  tender;  very  slow  to  go  to  seed. 

New  York  Head:  immense  round  head;  outer  leaves  dark;  head  white, 
crisp,  and  good  flavor ;  popular  in  southern  California.  It  is  widely  known 
as  "Los  Angeles  lettuce"  and  is  a  favorite  in  the  trade. 

Black-seeded  Simpson :  a  non-heading  variety,  leaves  almost  white  and 
very  large;  stands  heat  well. 

Of  these  varieties  the  first  two  named  have  been  the  main  de- 
pendence of  San  Francisco  market  gardeners  for  years.  The  Han- 
son and  Prize  Head  are  more  used  by  home  gardeners. 


CHAPTER   XXIV. 
MELONS. 

THE  MUSKMELON. — Cucumis  melo. 

French,    melon ;    German,    melone ;     Dutch,    meloen ;     Italian,    popone ; 
Spanish,  melon ;  Portuguese,  melao. 

THE  WATERMELON. — Citrullus  vulgaris. 

French,  melon  d'eau;  German,  wasser-melone ;  Italian,  cocomero;  Span- 
ish, sandia ;  Portuguese,  melamia. 

From  the  manner  in  which  they  are  eaten  melons  should  be 
classed  with  fruits ;  from  the  manner  in  which  they  are  grown  they 
are  more  closely  related  to  vegetables.  Their  nearest  botanical  rela- 
tives, also,  are  of  the  vegetable  class.  They  evidently  cannot  be  ex- 
cluded from  this  work  because  of  their  aspirations  to  rank  with  the 
fruits. 

California  is  characteristically  great  for  melons;  not  only  for 
their  great  size  and  excellence,  but  for  the  long  season  during  which 
they  are  available  for  table  use.  Their  delight  in  interior  heat,  their 
tolerance  of  drought,  their  immense  size,  when  both  heat  and  moist- 
ure combine  for  their  advancement,  constitute  exceptional  adapta- 
tions for  semi-tropical  climates,  in  which  they  have  been  famous 
from  the  earliest  times.  California  answers  their  needs  to  the  full- 
est degree,  and  they  have  naturally  attained  great  local  esteem  and 
popularity.  The  length  of  the  frostless  season,  the  different  dates 
of  its  beginning  and  the  varying  degrees  of  spring  and  summer  heat 
in  different  parts  of  the  state  give  us  command  of  early  and  late 
melons  beyond  that  of  any  other  part  of  the  country,  as  will  be 
noted  presently.  For  this  reason,  California  melons  have  during 
the  last  decade,  figured  largely  in  national  trade  eastward  and  in 
exports  to  northern  Pacific  ports. 

THE    MUSKMELON. 

In  the  United  States,  the  terms  "muskmelon"  and  "cantaloupe" 
are  interchangeable,  and  in  California  cantaloupe  is  given  the  prefer- 

(229) 


230  CALIFORNIA   VEGETABLES 

ence.  This  all  seems  somewhat  at  variance  with  European  practice, 
where  the  varieties  with  netted  coats  are  "muskmelons"  and  those 
with  scabbly  or  knobby  skins  are  "rock  melons"  or  cantaloupes.  Ac- 
cording to  this  classification,  the  varieties  we  chiefly  grow  in  Cali- 
fornia are  not  cantaloupes  at  all,  but  it  will  be  difficult  to  have  them 
called  by  any  other  name.  Of  the  many  types  of  cantaloupes  which 
have  been  defined  by  students  of  melon  classification  a  single  one, 
known  as  the  Rocky  Ford,  from  the  place  of  its  large  commercial  de- 
velopment in  Colorado,  dominates  all  others,  commanding  nearly  all 
the  acreage  and  constituting  almost  exclusively  the  commercial  pro- 
duction except  that  which  is  especially  grown  for  local  markets — 
aside,  of  course,  from  the  winter  melons,  which  are  a  distinct  class, 
as  will  be  noted  later. 

The  muskmelon  has  a  very  wide  range  in  California.  It  has 
greater  taste  for  dry  heat  than  its  relative,  the  cucumber,  but  in 
this  respect  it  is  no  rival  of  the  watermelon,  for  it  will  perish  utterly 
under  drought  which  the  watermelon  will  survive.  Where  the  musk- 
melon  has  both  heat  and  moisture,  it  grows  riotously,  for  a  weight 
of  seventy-two  pounds  has  been  reported  from  Fresno.  But  the 
muskmelon  will  not  brook  frost,  nor  will  it  thrive  with  low  tempera- 
tures even  if  they  are  considerably  above  freezing.  As  has  just  been 
stated,  however,  California  has  such  a  long  frost-free  period  and  as 
degrees  of  favoring  heat  arrive  in  different  months  in  different  parts 
of  the  state,  there  is  wide  divergence  in  dates  of  planting  and  of 
ripening  of  the  crop.  The  earliest  cantaloupe  district  is  the  Coachella 
and  Imperial  Valleys  in  the  extreme  southeast  corner  of  the  state, 
where  five  thousand  acres  were  grown  in  1912.  Planting  is  done  in 
February,  and  the  crop  shipment  begins  in  May  and  reaches  the 
eastern  markets  in  advance  of  the  product  of  Colorado  and  other 
interior  states.  In  the  San  Joaquin  valley  planting  may  be  in  April 
and  the  product  follows  the  Rocky  Ford  shipments  for  the  later 
summer  trade  of  the  Atlantic  cities.  Just  what  trade  can  be  profit- 
ably done  at  different  dates  in  the  east  is  not  fully  determined,  but 
the  advantage  of  the  very  early  cantaloupe  from  California  seems 
unquestioned.  It  is  clear,  however,  that  by  choosing  different  parts 
of  the  state  and  different  varieties  of  cantaloupes,  including  the 
"winter  melon"  class,  California  can  furnish  the  fruit  from  May  to 
December  in  any  quantities  the  available  prices  make  profitable. 

Garden  Culture. — The  soil  requirements  of  the  muskmelon  are 
quite  like  those  already  described  for  the  cucumber.  Most  of  the 


232  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

commercial  crop  is  produced  on  deep,  rich,  warm  loams,  but  heavier 
soils  with  good  culture  may  be  used.  Some  varieties  seem  to  enjoy 
a  heavy  soil  better  than  others.  Preparation  of  the  soil  is  the  same 
as  for  cucumbers,  and  the  same  methods  for  starting  plants  for 
planting  out  as  well  as  for  furnishing  warmth  and  richness  in  the 
hill  may  be  used  in  garden  practice.  In  the  interior,  on  the  natur- 
ally rich  loams,  not  only  is  the  culture  devoid  of  all  forcing  devices, 
but  on  moist  soils  the  early  crop  is  grown  without  irrigation.  For 
summer  planting  and  the  continuation  of  the  muskmelon  supply  late 
in  the  fall,  ample  moisture  is  necessary,  and  a  modification  of  interior 
heat  by  intrusion  of  coast  breezes  is  desirable.  The  late  summer 
product  is  most  easily  grown  in  coast  valleys,  somewhat  protected 
from  ocean  winds.  Even  in  rather  cool  places  one  can  get  good 
cantaloupes  for  home  use  by  choosing  warm  places  in  the  garden  and 
by  arrangements  to  corner  the  heat. 

Field  Culture  of  Cantaloupes. — There  are  so  many  ways  of  hand- 
ling the  soil  to  secure  fine  tillage  and  aeration  and  adequate  moisture 
without  the  evil  of  surface  flooding  that  it  can  be  hardly  claimed 
that  any  one  routine  is  best.  As  involving  tillage,  irrigation  by  per- 
colation and  fertilization,  which  the  plant  enjoys  under  proper  con- 
ditions, the  following  outline,  condensed  from  the  writings  of  Dr.  R. 
H.  Forbes  of  the  Arizona  Station,  is  very  suggestive  for  California 
interior  valley  conditions.  The  writer  has  made  some  additions 
from  his  own  observations :  Cantaloupes  are  grown  to  excellent  ad- 
vantage on  light  warm  loams  properly  fertilized  by  the  addition  of 
the  organic  matter  and  nitrogen  in  which  our  desert  soils  are 
usually  deficient.  Heavy  soils  may  also  be  used  for  cantaloupe  cul- 
ture, but  are  less  easily  prepared  and  tilled  during  the  progress  of 
the  crop.  Old  alfalfa  ground  is  most  excellent  for  cantaloupe  cul- 
ture, and  well-rotted  barnyard  manure  is  effective.  Bermuda  sod 
plowed  up  and  exposed  to  the  sun  without  irrigation  the  preceding 
summer  makes  excellent  cantaloupe  ground,  the  intensive  cultivation 
necessary  serving  both  to  benefit  the  crop  and  to  restrain  this  for- 
midable weed.  Trash  from  sod-turning  can  be  reduced  by  the  use 
of  a  disk. 

Alkaline  lands  should  be  avoided,  since  soluble  salts  in  excess, 
even  though  insufficient  to  kill  the  plants,  are  commonly  believed  to 
be  detrimental  to  the  quality  of  the  melons. 

The  land  should  be  so  laid  out  that  the  rows  may  be  irrigated 
without  submerging  the  vines  and  the  fruit.  One  good  way  to  ac- 


FIELD   CULTURE   OF    CANTALOUPES  233 

complish  this,  and  also  to  fertilize  the  soil,  is  as  follows :  The  field 
is  first  irrigated,  plowed  and  harrowed  to  a  condition  of  fine  tilth. 
With  a  12-inch  plow,  at  intervals  of  six  feet,  double  furrows  are 
then  broken  out,  going  and  returning  along  the  same  lines.  In  the 
deep,  wide  furrows  thus  formed  well-rotted  barnyard  manure  is 
distributed  to  a  depth  of  three  or  four  inches,  then  plowed  in  and 
the  field  again  harrowed  level.  By  then  plowing  toward  the  middle 
of  the  spaces  between  the  fertilized  furrows,  the  soil  is  finally  left  in 
oval  ridges  separated  by  back  furrows  for  irrigation.  The  rough 
furrows  and  ridges  are  then  finished  with  a  harrow  and  the  newly 
prepared  ground  irrigated  to  establish  the  water  line  for  guidance  in 
planting. 

In  the  absence  of  stable  manure  a  thousand  pounds  of  complete 
commercial  fertilizer  may  be  used  to  the  acre  with  advantage. 

Seed  should  be  most  carefully  selected  with  reference  to  flavor 
and  appearance  of  the  fruit;  to  good  shipping  characters,  including 
small  cavities  and  heavy  netting ;  and  to  a  tendency  to  produce 
melons  of  standard  size.  About  one  pound  of  seed  is  required  for 
an  acre.  Cantaloupe  seed  improves  to  some  extent  with  time,  and 
is  stated  by  experienced  growers  to  give  more  satisfaction  at  two 
years  of  age  than  at  one. 

With  irrigating  furrows  six  feet  apart,  rows  may  be  planted 
one  on  each  side  of  each  furrow.  The  hills  should  be  ten  feet  apart 
in  the  rows,  "breaking  spaces"  between  rows.  On  this  plan  the 
ground  will  be  quite  uniformly  occupied,  with  a  distance  of  about 
six  feet  between  adjacent  hills.  Where  winds  are  strong  and 
prevalently  in  one  direction  it  is  sometimes  desirable  to  lay  off  the 
lands  at  right  angles  to  the  course  of  the  wind  and  plant  all  the 
hills  on  the  windward  side  of  each  strip  so  that  the  vines  are  trained 
by  the  wind  away  from  the  ditch  and  not  half  of  them  blown  into  it. 

With  a  hoe  each  hill  is  planted  by  making  a  small  furrow  a  foot 
long  just  above  the  water  line,  made  by  the  preceding  irrigation 
which  places  the  hill  where  it  will  not  be  flooded  by  later  irrigation. 
About  ten  seeds  are  dropped  into  this  furrow,  covered  an  inch  deep, 
and  the  soil  pressed  down  lightly  with  the  blade  of  the  hoe.  After 
early  plantings,  when  frosts  are  feared,  a  second  set  of  hills  may  be 
planted  alongside  the  first,  ten  days  or  two  weeks  later.  When  dan- 
ger from  frost  is  past,  while  the  plants  are  still  small  they  ane 
thinned  to  one  or  two  of  the  strongest  to  each  hill.  Care  must  be 
taken  not  to  overcrowd  the  ground  with  vines,  as  a  high  percentage 


234  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

of  small  melons  will  follow.  Under  Arizona  conditions  the  six-foot 
spacing  of  hills  recommended  above,  with  not  more  than  two  plants 
in  the  "hill,  gives  best  results. 

A  dependable  supply  of  irrigating  water  is  essential  to  success- 
ful cantaloupe  culture  in  regions  of  little  rain.  Early  in  the  season 
when  the  plants  are  small  and  the  irrigating  supply  is  cold,  water 
should  be  applied  sparingly.  But  between  the  setting  of  the  crop 
and  the  ripening  of  the  first  fruits,  when  both  vines  and  melons  are 
developing  rapidly  and  when  the  weather  is  usually  hot  and  dry,  fre- 
quent and  copious  irrigation  is  necessary,  for  if  water  is  stinted  at 
this  time  a  larger  percentage  of  small  or  pony  melons  is  likely  to 
follow.  During  the  picking  season  water  should  again  be  sparingly 
applied — just  enough  to  prevent  the  vines  from  wilting.  This  also 
gives  quality  and  solidity  to  the  melons. 

As  long  as  the  vines  will  permit,  the  middles  should  be  kept 
free  of  weeds  by  means  of  a  one-horse  cultivator,  and  the  furrows 
run  through  with  a  small  plow  after  each  irrigation.  The  young 
plants  should  also  be  hoed  by  hand  two  or  three  times.  When  the 
ground  is  once  more  covered  with  vines  weeds  will  make  but  little 
headway,  even  Bermuda  grass  being  effectually  checked  by  the 
dense  cover. 

Varieties. — The  wonderful  advancement  of  the  cantaloupe  as  a 
commercial  product  during  the  last  decade  has  quickened  effort  for 
new  varieties  and  given  new  incentive  to  sharp  selection  to  secure 
characters  likely  to  facilitate  long  shipment  or  to  increase  the  de- 
mand. Relatively  small  size,  symmetrical  form,  thickness  of  flesh 
and  reduction  of  the  seed-cavity,  durability,  flavor  and  color  of  flesh 
are  among  the  improvements  which  have  been  diligently  sought. 
Each  year  brings  forward  something  new  and  worthy  of  trial  to 
determine  local  behavior  and  suitability.  Obviously  a  book  which 
aims  to  be  useful  for  a  number  of  years  after  its  publication  cannot 
satisfactorily  serve  as  a  guide  to  choice  of  varieties  which  are  con- 
stantly changing.  Annual  catalogues  of  California  seedsmen  should 
be  carefully  consulted  and  every  grower  should  try  all  promising 
novelties  on  a  small  scale. 

Rocky  Ford :  The  variety  upon  which  the  Colorado  cantaloupe  industry 
is  established  and  it  sustains  the  same  relation  to  the  commercial  product 
of  California;  developed  by  selection  from  the  old  "Netted  Gem";  slightly 
oval,  finely  netted,  average  weight  ll/2  pounds;  flesh  green,  thick  and  very 
sweet.  Continued  selection  is  being  practiced  upon  this  variety  and  "Netted 


WINTER    CANTALOUPES 


235 


Rock"  has  been  favored  in  this  State  on  the  claim  of  heavy  bearing  and 
greater  average  production  of  standard  melons. 

Burrell's  Gem:  Larger  than  Rocky  Ford;  flesh  reddish  and  of  different 
flavor;  an  improved  Paul  Rose,  which  it  has  largely  displaced. 

Hoodoo-  slightly  flatter  than  Rocky  Ford  but  otherwise  similar;  flesh 
reddish.  j  !  •  j 

Large  Yellow :  an  old  variety,  large  oblong,  slightly  ribbed  and  coarsely 
netted;  flesh  light,  yellowish  green;  quality  excellent;  still  popular  though 
very  different  from  modern  commercial  types. 

California  Large  Nutmeg:  an  old  variety  still  popular  in  local  markets 
and  good  for  shipping;  large,  rough,  netted  skin;  flesh  thick,  solid,  dark 
green;  flavor  delicate. 

Montreal  Improved  Green  Nutmeg:  large,  slightly  flattened  at  the  poles, 
densely  netted  skin,  flesh  thick  and  of  good  flavor. 

Early  Hackensack :  large  size,  productive,  excellent  flavor. 

Large  Hackensack:  large  size,  roundish,  very  prolific,  thick,  juicy  flesh, 
rich  in  flavor. 

The  small,  early  varieties,  like  Jenny  Lind,  are  not  largely 
grown,  as  the  trade  prefers  the  large  nutmeg  varieties.  The  small 
varieties  are,  however,  very  desirable  for  home  use. 


THE  WINTER  CANTALOUPES. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  and  promising  phases  of  melon 
growing  in  California  is  the  advancement  of  the  "winter  melon," 
comprising  several  types,  of  which  the  first  to  reach  California  was 
the  Cassaba  or  pine  apple  melon  which  was  introduced  in  two 
varieties :  one  by  the  late  General  Bidwell,  of  Chico,  in  1869,  and 
another  by  the  late  Dr.  J.  D.  B.  Stillman  in  1878.  Of  these  the 
latter  has  secured  the  greater  popularity.  Later  introductions  and 
selections  and  probably  hybridizations  also,  have  brought  half  a 
dozen  quite  distinct  varieties  into  notice  and  a  considerable  product 
has  been  secured  both  for  local  sale  and  distant  shipment  during  the 
late  autumn  and  early  winter.  Which  varieties  will  survive  cannot 
be  told  and  in  this  line  California  seedsmen's  catalogues  must  be 
consulted  each  year.  Mr.  H.  T.  Musser,  of  Los  Angeles,  is  the 
best  informed  Californian  on  this  group  of  melons.  On  irrigated 
lands  in  frostless  places  these  melons  can  be  sown  in  mid-summer 
and  find  ample  autumn  heat  and  freedom  from  frost  to  reach  per- 
fection. The  ripe  fruit  remains  in  good  condition  for  months  with- 
out cold  storage. 


236  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

THE  WATERMELON. 

The  watermelon  is  more  strictly  a  warm  region  plant  than  the 
muskmelon.  It  reaches  greatest  size  and  sweetness  in  interior 
regions  of  highest  heat,  coming  nearer  to  the  coast  in  southern 
California  than  in  the  upper  part  of  the  state.  The  heat  is,  how- 
ever, high  enough  in  some  of  the  coast  valleys  and  foothills,  which 
are  in  some  parts  separated  from  the  coast  by  high  ranges,  to  pro- 
duce a  very  good  watermelon. 

The  gratefulness  of  the  interior  climate  of  California  to  the 
watermelon  is  seen  in  the  way  the  plants  volunteer  wherever  on 
cultivated  land  a  melon  may  have  gone  to  decay.  In  cultivated 
orchard  they  may  almost  be  called  weeds,  though  sometimes  the 
volunteer  crop  is  turned  to  account.  A  case  is  cited  where  water- 
melons were  planted  between  the  trees  in  a  young  orchard.  After 
the  melons  were  harvested,  and  before  the  volunteer  crop  appeared 
the  following  year,  the  ground  was  plowed  twice,  harrowed  twice, 
and  cultivated  four  times  in  the  regular  course  of  orchard  work. 
Notwithstanding  all  this  disturbance  of  the  soil,  the  seeds,  which 
remained  in  the  ground  during  the  warm  rains  of  winter  and  spring, 
did  not  sprout  until  June — considerably  later  than  seed  sown  that 
year,  and  produced  as  good  a  crop  as  the  latter.  Being,  probably, 
deeply  covered  they  awaited  the  penetration  of  the  warmth,  which 
came  first  to  the  seed  sown  near  the  surface.  The  soil  was  a  light 
loam,  naturally  well  drained,  and  the  seed  abided  its  time  in  good 
condition. 

Soils. — Soils  which  best  suit  the  watermelon  are  warm  allu- 
vial soils,  and  the  plant  thrives  on  a  lighter,  drier  soil  than  suits 
the  muskmelon.  It  does  well  on  a  light  soil  with  a  retentive  sub- 
soil, which  acts  as  a  reservoir  of  moisture.  In  such  a  case  the  surface 
soil  may  be  coarse  or  even  gravelly.  Good  specimens  have  been 
shown  which  have  been  grown  without  irrigation  on  recent  deposits 
of  mining  detritus ;  on  the  other  hand,  good  melons  are  grown  on 
rather  stiff  clay  loam.  On  heavy  land  much  is  gained  by  plowing 
under  a  winteivgrown  sod  or  green  crop,  or  a  covering  of  manure, 
which  renders  the  soil  more  permeable  as  well  as  enriches  it.  The 
plant  seems  to  tolerate  many  conditions,  but  neither  cold  not  wet 
agrees  with  it. 

Culture. — The  preparation  of  land  for  watermelons  is  like  that 
for  sugar  beets,  already  described.  In  regions  of  heavy  rainfall  the 
fall  plowing  should  be  done  with  enough  dead  furrows  to  remove 


WATERMELONS  237 

surplus  water  so  that  the  spring  plowing  may  not  be  delayed  by 
wetness.  Two  spring  plowings  and  pulverizations  are  desirable 
on  the  heavier  soils. 

The  land  is  laid  off  with,  a  marker  in  six  or  eight  feet  squares, 
and  planted,  after  danger  from  frost  is  over  and  the  ground  is  warm, 
with  ten  or  twelve  seeds  in  a  place  to  cover  accidents  and  insects. 
These  are  reduced  at  the  first  hoeing  to  one  or  two  plants  in  a  place. 
The  cultivator  should  be  used  as  soon  as  possible  to  prevent  crusting 
of  the  soil,  and  cultivation  should  be  kept  up  until  it  interferes  too 
much  with  the  growth  of  the  vines.  During  the  first  two  months 
of  their  growth  the  cultivator  is  almost  constantly  running  in  the 
melon  fields. 

Time  of  planting  is,  of  course,  dependent  upon  the  frost  record 
of  the  locality.  To  get  the  earliest  melons,  growers  often  take  the 
chance  of  replanting  by  planting  in  Maarch  if  it  is  an  early  spring 
and  the  soil  is  in  good  condition.  In  light  interior  soils  the  most 
of  the  planting  is  done  in  April,  and  in  frosty  situations  early  in 
May.  For  succession,  planting  can  proceed  on  moist  or  irrigated 
land  until  July,  and  in  frostless  locations  July  planting  will  give 
ripe  melons  as  late  as  New  Year's. 

Harvesting. — When  early  sowings  succeed,  melons  can  be  had 
in  June  in  the  interior,  but  the  weight  of  the  crop  comes  in  July  or 
August.  An  average  yield  in  field  culture  is  one  car-load,  or  one 
hundred  dozen  melons  to  the  acre.  Sizes  run  from  a  common  mer- 
chantable size  of  twenty  pounds  up  to  a  monster  of  one  hundred  and 
thirty-one  and  three-quarter  pounds,  grown  in  Los  Angeles  county, 
as  recorded  in  Chapter  I.  Melons  of  ninety  to  one  hundred  pounds 
have  been  reported  from  all  regions  which  make  any  pretensions  to 
greatness  in  this  line. 

Stock  Melons. — Excess  crop  or  defective  watermelons  and 
cantaloupes  are  freely  used  for  stock  feeding.  There  is  also  especially 
grown  for  stock,  the  pie-melon  or  citron  melon,  which  is  sometimes 
called  "citron."  This  term,  however,  should  never  be  used  without 
the  suffix  melon,  in  this  state,  because  the  citron  is  an  ancient  and 
honorable  citrus  fruit  which  we  are  growing  on  trees.  The  pie  melon 
or  citron  melon  was  so  called  because  in  cold  countries  they  make  a 
preserve  of  the  rind  which  has  a  fancied  resemblance  to  the  citron 
of  commerce  which  is  made  from  the  skin  of  the  citron. 

Citron  melons  are  of  low  nutritive  value  but  serve  a  good  pur- 
pose. In  one  hundred  pounds  of  citron  melon  there  is  0.7  pounds  of 


238  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES 

digestible  protein,  3.3  pounds  digestible  carbohydrates  and  0.2  pound 
fat,  which,  giving  a  true  value  to  the  fat,  means  4.5  pounds  of 
nutrients.  Alfalfa  hay  contains  approximately  53  pounds  of  nutri- 
ents to  the  one  hundred  pounds,  counting  the  fat  in  the  same  way, 
making  the  alfalfa  about  twelve  times  as  good,  weight  for  weight. 
However,  an  added  benefit  to  the  citron  melons  comes  in  the  fact 
that  they  are  a  succulent  food  and  have  an  excellent  physiological 
effect  aside  merely  from  the  food  content.  This  succulency  makes 
it  very  good  with  alfalfa  hay,  with  which  it  makes  a  balanced  ration. 
Varieties. — Everything  offered  by  seedsmen  in  the  form  of  an 
improved  watermelon  is  quickly  put  into  California  soil.  The  result 
is  that  in  the  state  as  a  whole  very  many  varieties  are  grown,  proba- 
bly as  many  as  of  any  single  garden  plant.  Still  a  few  varieties  are 
easily  leading  in  popularity.  The  most  famous  variety  in  the  central 
part  for  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  has  been  the  "Lodi/'  a  variety 
believed  to  be  of  local  origin,  taking  its  name  from  the  locality 
where  largely  grown,  in  San  Joaquin  county,  but  the  Lodi  has  given 
way  even  in  its  own  region  to  other  varieties,  and  its  decadence  is 
probably  in  part  due  to  lack  of  proper  selection  in  seed  sowing  on 
the  part  of  the  growers,  and  the  superiority  of  newer  sorts.  The 
following  have  commended  themselves  to  California  growers: 

Florida  Favorite:  large,  oblong,  -deep  green,  mottled;  good  flavor  and 
a  good  early  variety  and  a  good  shipper. 

Fordhook  Early :  very  early,  medium  size,  globular,  tough,  deep  mottled 
green  rind,  red  flesh;  good  for  early  shipping. 

Dixie:  large  and  handsome,  dark  green,  beautifully  striped,  hardy  and 
productive,  sweet,  juicy,  and  tender  scarlet  flesh.  A  good  shipping  variety. 

Cuban  Queen :  large,  symmetrical,  solid,  rind  thin  and  strong,  striped 
with  dark  and  light  green,  flesh  red,  tender  and  very  sweet,  vine  very  strong 
in  growth  and  productive.  Melons  keep  well  and  ship  well. 

Mammoth  Ironclad:  resembles  Cuban  Queen  in  markings;  melons 
uniformly  large,  with  hard,  tough  rind,  flesh  very  red  and  solid,  productive 
and  a  good  shipper. 

Kolb  Gem:  round,  dark  green,  with  light  green  stripes,  which  are 
narrow  and  of  dull  color,  fair  size,  flesh  bright  red  and  good  flavor,  tough 
rind  and  a  good  shipper.  f 

Iceberg:  like  Kolb  Gem,  but  darker  green  and  flesh  deep  red;  a  good 
shipper. 

Southern  Rattlesnake:  oblong,  light  green,  beautifully  striped,  thin  rind, 
flesh  scarlet,  solid  and  very  sweet. 

Lodi:  large,  solid,  light  green,  flesh  deep  red,  rich  and  delicious,  and 
extending  to  within  half  an  inch  of  the  rind.  For  many  years  this  variety 
almost  controlled  California  markets  and  is  still  largely  grown. 


WATERMELONS  239 

Mountain  Sweet:  large  long,  flesh  red,  firm  and  sweet;  good  for  home 
garden. 

Peerless :  nearly  round,  pale  green,  thin  rind,  red  flesh,  very  sweet. 

Chilian:  oblong,  deep  green,  mottled  and  striped,  flesh  bright  red,  sweet 
and  high  quality ;  good  for  home  use  because  of  thin,  brittle  rind. 

Kleckley  Sweet:  medium  sized,  oval,  dark  green,  flesh  bright  red,  high 
quality,  largely  grown  in  central-  California  for  home  use  and  shipping. 

Ice  Cream :  very  large,  long,  solid  deep  green,  flesh  deep  pink. 

Philippine:  medium  sized,  thin  rind;  a  favorite  with  Los  Angeles 
retailers  and  peddlers. 

Pasadena  and  Angeleno :  two  varieties  becoming  prominent  in  southern 
California  for  local  trade. 


CHAPTER   XXV. 

THE  ONION  FAMILY. 

ONION. — Allium  cepa. 

French,  ognon:  German,  zwiebel;  Dutch,  uijen;  Danish,  voglog;  Italian, 
cipolla;  Spanish,  cebolla;  Portuguese,  cebola. 

LEEK. — Allium  porrum.  , 

French   poireau ;    German,    lauch ;    Dutch,   prei ;    Danish,   porre ;    Italian, 
porro ;  Spanish,  puerro ;  Portuguese,  alho  porro. 

GARLIC. — Allium  sativum. 

French,   ail;    German,   knoblauch;    Dutch,    knoflook;     Danish,    hvidlog; 
Italian,  aglio;   Spanish  ajo;   Portuguese,  alho. 

CHIVES.— Allium  schoenoprasum. 

French  ciboulette,  civette;  German,  schittlauch;  Dutch,  bieslook;  Italian, 
cipollina;  Spanish,  cebollino. 

CIBOULE. — Allium  fistulosum. 

French,   ciboule;     German,    schnitt-zwiebel ;     Dutch,    bieslook;    Danish, 
purlog;  Italian,  cipolleta;  Spanish,  cebolleta;  Portuguese,  cebolinha. 

SHALLOT. — Allium  ascalonicum. 

French,  echalote;  German,  schalotte;  Dutch,  sjalot;  Danish,  skalottelog; 
Italian,  scalogno ;   Spanish,  chalote ;  Portuguese,  echalota. 

The  onion  is  another  of  the  great  vegetables  in  California — 
great  in  the  size  of  the  tubers  and  in  the  crop,  as  is  shown  by  the 
data  published  in  Chapter  I ;  great  also  in  the  east  with  which  a 
constant  supply  of  fresh  onions  can  be  secured  throughout  the  year 
in  the  open  air;  greater  still,  perhaps,  in  the  fact  that  the  superb 
local  conditions  for  onion-seed  growing  have  given  California  almost 
the  monpoly  of  the  onion-seed  trade  of  the  United  States,  and  yet 
we  have  produced  sometimes  more  seed  than  can  be  sold  with  profit 
to  the  growers.  Though  the  local  consumption  of  onions,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  population,  is  large,  and  though  there  is  an  export 
trade  in  all  directions,  there  is  frequently  an  over-production  and  a 
reaction  even  to  scarcity,  so  that  the  market  price  is  subject  to  wide 

(240) 


REQUIREMENTS    OF   THE   ONION  241 

fluctuations.  A  more  trustworthy  demand  would  develop  a  produc- 
ing capacity  which  has  thus  far  hardly  been  entered  upon,  although 
during  recent  years  distant  shipment  of  onions  has  notably  increased. 
The  product  cannot  be  accurately  measured  because  onions  are 
grouped  with  "other  vegetables"  in  the  census  reports,  but  it  has 
been  estimated  that  the  annual  product  is  more  than  two  and  a 
quarter  millions  of  sacks,  averaging  in  value  about  one  dollar  per 
sack. 

Though  local  conditions  are  favorable  and  almost  incredible 
returns  are  sometimes  secured,  onion  growing  is  exacting  in  its 
requirements  in  California,  as  everywhere,  and  the  crop  is  one  which 
no  one  should  undertake  without  adequate  resources  of  energy, 
patience,  promptness  and  elasticity — either  in  his  back  or  in  his 
pocketbook.  No  matter  how  well  suited  his  soil,  or  how  good  his 
stand  of  young  plants  upon  it,  a  few  days'  neglect  may  put  them 
out  of  sight  in  a  forest  of  weeds,  from  which  they  cannot  be  profit- 
ably rescued.  Still,  to  the  diligent  grower  who  can  command  suit- 
able soil  and  the  labor  needed  at  a  certain  time,  and  is  prompt  and 
persistent  in  the  use  of  it,  there  is  always  the  promise  of  as  fair  a 
crop  as  man  needs  to  see,  for  the  climate  not  only  favors  growth, 
maturing  and  harvesting,  but  it  gives  the  plant  freedom  from  many 
pests  and  diseases,  which  are  grievous  in  other  countries. 

Situations  and  Soils. — The  onion  is  profited  by  a  long  growing 
season.  It  grows  most  luxuriantly  and  its  bulb  expands  most  freely 
in  a  moderate  temperature  and  with  a  good  moisture  supply.  It 
endures  heat  well,  if  moisture  is  ample;  it  is  easily  forced  into 
maturity  by  drought,  and  though  it  is  fortunate,  in  some  respects, 
that  the  bulb  has  the  power  to  renew  its  growth  and  reach  full  size 
with  the  renewal  of  moisture,  this  is  little  consolation  to  the  grower 
who  aimed  at  a  crop  of  marketable  onions,  not  of  onion  sets.  It  is 
important,  then,  that  the  growth  of  the  plant  be  not  arrested  in  this 
way,  and,  to  assure  this,  moisture  must  be  ad  quate  until  satisfactory 
size  is  attained.  Land  naturally  moist,  or  in  which  a  good  supply 
may  be  retained  by  cultivation,  or  for  which  irrigation  is  available 
to  counteract  natural  tendency  to  dryness,  is  necessary  for  the  full 
success  of  the  onion  as  a  mature  crop.  In  the  winter,  if  rains  are 
up  to  the  average,  very  good  growth  of  green  onions  can  be  had  on 
land  which  is  too  dry  in  summer  to  carry  the  bulb  to  full-sized  matu- 
rit} .  For  satisfactory  summer  finishing  of  the  crop,  soils  which 
are  prone  to  dry  out  must  be  avoided,  unless  irrigation  is  available. 


242  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES 

How  this  matter  is  affected  by  methods  of  propagation  will  appear 
presently. 

If  the  needed  moisture  can  be  afforded,  onions  can  be  well 
grown  on  a  variety  of  soils.  Quite  heavy  adobe  can  be  made  to  do, 
but  it  will  be  at  the  cost  of  most  thorough  cultivation,  producing 
tilth  which  is  difficult  and  expensive  to  attain  on  such  soil.  Every 
addition  of  sand  or  silt  to  the  adobe  improves  it  in  this  respect,  and 
the  ideal  soil  for  the  onion  is  one  which  is  retentive  enough,  under 
cultivation  to  keep  the  plant  roots  from  a  touch  of  drought,  and 
friable  enough  to  be  easy  in  cultivation  and  easy  also  for  the  ex- 
panding bulb  to  displace  as  it  grows.  The  bulb  should  expand  on 
the  ground  surface,  not  under  it,  and  it  is  very  difficult  to  secure  this 
on  a  clay  without  baking  of  the  surface,  which  dries  the  roots  and 
results  in  prematurity  and  small  size  in  the  bulb.  On  the  other 
hand,  sandy  soil  is  usable  only  at  a  cost  of  frequent  irrigation,  for 
it  also  loses  surface  moisture  in  spite  of  stirring.  Besides  suitable 
mechanical  condition  of  the  soil,  it  is  essential  that  it  shall  be  rich 
in  plant  food.  Onions  resent  a  poor  soil.  Fortunately  California 
has  large  areas  of  loam,  of  mixed  peat  and  sediment,  and  of  alluvial 
soils,  which  are  so  rich  that  many  onion  crops  can  be  grown  without 
fertilizing,  but  in  garden  work  the  free  use  of  manure  is  the  secret 
of  quick,  tender  and  large  size,  both  in  the  green  and  mature  onion. 
But  the  use  of  fresh  manure  just  before  planting  Is  not  desirable, 
and  even  well-rotted  manure  should  be  applied  several  months  in 
advance  of  planting,  that  it  may  become  thoroughly  incorporated 
with  the  soil. 

The  great  onion  regions  of  the  state  are  the  lower  stretches  of 
the  rich  coast  valleys  and  the  moist  river  lands  in  the  interior.  Fine 
onions  for  local  use  are  grown  on  upland  loams,  with  or  without 
irrigation,  according  to  local  climatic  conditions.  All  these  classes 
of  lands  are  distributed  throughout  the  state. 

Propagation  of  the  Onion. — The  onion  is  grown  here,  as  else- 
where, by  three  main  lines  of  propagation:  from  seed  sown  in  the 
field;  from  transplanted  seedlings  and  from  sets.  The  last  is  by 
far  the  least  important  in  California,  and  the  choice  between  the 
other  two  depends  upon  the  special  end  in  view,  as  will  appear  in 
the  discussion  of  them. 

The  Crop  from  Seed. — In  this  case  the  growth  is  to  be  pushed 
continuously  on  the  same  ground  from  seed  to  sack.  The  main 
crop  is  grown  in  this  way,  and  for  this  method  California  has  mani- 


ONIONS    FROM    SEED  243 

fest  advantage  in  its  long  growing  season.  Field-sowing  can  be  done 
as  early  as  February,  and  on  retentive  soils  moisture  can  be  held 
by  summer  cultivation,  or  on  coarser  soils  by  irrigation  and  culti- 
vation, until  the  bulbs  reach  as  large  a  size  as  is  desirable  for 
marketing. 

For  seed-sowing  the  land  should  be  as  deeply  and  thoroughly 
prepared  as  has  already  been  prescribed  for  sugar  beets.  The  work 
should  begin  with  fall  plowing  to  open  the  surface  for  absorption 
of  rainfall,  to  be  followed  later  by  a  deep  cross-plowing  to  fully 
turn  in  the  crop  of  weeds  and  grass  which  will  come  with  moisture. 
After  that  a  shallow  plowing  or  cultivation  may  be  given  to  kill 
later  growth  of  weeds  and  to  contribute  to  surface  pulverization. 
The  seed  should  be  sown  when  the  advance  of  the  season  warms 
the  soil.  The  precise  date  depends  upon  two  considerations :  first, 
the  local  rainfall,  and  second,  the  local  weed  growth.  Where  spring 
rains  are  usually  light,  earlier  sowing  is  best ;  where  spring  rains 
are  usually  generous  and  where  weed  growth  is  great,  it  is  often 
wise  to  defer  sowing  and  use  the  cultivator  for  weed-killing,  so  that 
the  ground  may  be  as  clean  as  possible  before  the  seed  is  sown. 
Weeding  onions  is  one  of  the  most  expensive  and  tiresome  of  all 
field  practices,  and  it  is  good  policy,  where  moisture  is  ample,  to 
sow  much  later  in  the  spring  for  the  advantage  of  securing  cleaner 
land,  as  well  as  to  prevent  the  growth  of  "thick-necks"  or  scallions, 
which,  though  edible,  are  not  good  keepers  and  do  not  sell  well. 
Each  locality  has  its  own  policy  in  sowing  onions,  which  can  be 
learned  by  conference  with  experienced  growers. 

When  the  sowing  time  comes  be  sure  the  land  is  fined  well. 
Use  nothing  but  the  freshest  seed  from  responsible  dealers ;  mark 
out  a  straight  line  for  beginning  and  sow  the  seed  with  a  seeder 
with  a  guide  so  that  the  straightness  of  the  first  row  may  be  followed 
in  the  others.  If  the  rows  begin  to  vary  from  this,  strike  another 
straight  line  and  proceed  again  from  this.  Distance  between  the 
rows  depends  upon  the  method  of  cultivation  to  be  adopted ;  some 
are  grown  with  two  feet  distance  and  horse  cultivation  is  used,  but 
most  growers  choose  a  distance  of  twelve  to  sixteen  inches  and  use 
hand  cultivation.  The  hand  hoes,  or  cultivators  with  wheels,  work 
very  easily  and  rapidly  in  light  soils.  Care  must  be  taken  to  work 
them  deeply  enough  to  produce  a  good  soil  mulch. 

Depth  of  covering  depends  upon  season,  moisture  and  character 
of  soil,  as  explained  in  Chapter  XI.  With  onions  the  depth  would 


244  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

vary  from  one-half  an  inch  on  heavy  soil  to  one  inch  on  light,  or 
slightly  more  on  light  soil  in  a  dry  locality,  is  about  the  range.  The 
seeder  should  be  set  to  drop  the  seeds  about  an  inch  apart  in  the 
drill,  which  will  use  about  four  pounds  to  the  acre.  After  sowing, 
the  ground  can  be  firmed  in  any  of  the  ways  mentioned  in  Chapter 
XI.  A  light  roller  is  most  expeditious  and  satisfactory  if  the  soil 
is  in  the  right  condition  of  moisture. 

Onion  seed  is  sometimes  rather  slow  in  starting  and  the  culti- 
vation should  not  wait  until  the  plants  appear.  Mr.  S.  J.  Murdock, 
of  Orange  county,  shows  how  skillfully  the  hand  wheel  hoe  can  be 
used  in  the  onion  field. 

After  seeding,  thorough,  shallow  cultivation  is  essential.  Do  not  wait 
until  the  plants  are  up  before  beginning ;  from  four  to  eight  days  will  be 
proper,  or  when  the  seed  begins  to  show  signs  of  germinating,  which  can 
be  ascertained  by  carefully  brushing  the  soil  from  the  drill  row.  I  put  the 
curved  hoes  on  my  wheel  hoe,  with  the  straight  ends  of  the  hoes  pointing 
inwards  and  lapping  about  two  inches  and  hoe  right  over  the  rows  but  not 
deep  enough  to  disturb  the  seed.  It  saves  a  great  amount  of  hand-weeding 
by  killing  the  weeds  just  starting  to  grow  in  the  rows.  As  soon  as  the 
onions  are  up  sufficiently  to  follow  the  rows,  I  reverse  my  hoes,  with  the 
curved  ends  next  to  the  rows,  just  far  enough  apart  so  as  to  hoe  as  close  as 
possible  without  cutting  the  young  plants  by  running  the  hoes  astride  the 
rows.  This  operation  hoes  both  sides  of  the  row  at  one  trip  of  the  machine. 
Follow  this  by  hand- weeding;  this  operation  is  best  performed  by  the  crawl- 
ing process,  that  is,  by  getting  down  on  hands  and  knees  astride  of  a  row 
and  pulling  every  weed  in  sight,  and  loosening  the  soil  around  and  between 
the  plants.  Repeat  this  as  often  as  any  weeds  are  to  be  found,  and  under 
no  circumstances  allow  the  weeds  to  grow  above  the  onions;  at  the  same 
time  keep  the  wheel  hoe  at  work  between  the  rows  and  as  close  as  possible. 

It  is  desirable  to  use  plenty  of  seed  in  field  sowing.  Sometimes 
it  is  possible  to  make  something  from  the  young  onions  while  thin- 
ning the  plants  to  about  four  inches  apart  in  the  rows,  but  usually 
the  thinning  is  done  before  the  plants  get  to  the  size  of  top  onions. 

As  previously  said,  the  bulb  of  the  onion  should  be  at  the 
ground  surface,  and  the  dirt  should  not  be  thrown  to  any  extent 
on  the  onions  by  cultivation.  The  roots  should  be  well  covered,  but 
not  the  bulb. 

Transplanted  Onions. — Next  to  growth  from  the  seed,  the 
transplanting  of  small  seedlings  from  the  seed-bed  to  the  field,  is 
most  practiced  in  California.  This  method  has  recently  been  pro- 
claimed in  the  eastern  and  southern  states  as  a  "new  onion  culture," 


TRANSPLANTED   ONIONS  245 

but  it  is  really  an  old  practice  in  the  south  of  Europe,  and  has  been 
followed  in  California  for  a  quarter  of  a  century  or  more  in  prefer- 
ence to  starting  from  onion  sets.  It  is  a  fact  that  transplanting  pro- 
duces more  uniformly  large  onions  than  growth  from  the  seed  in 
place,  and  the  crop  also  reaches  maturity  sooner,  as  the  transplanting 
does  not  sacrifice  the  time  gained  by  the  earlier  start  in  the  seed-bed. 
Employing  these  two  points  of  advantage  in  a  region  suitable  to 
quick  winter  growth,  a  very  early  crop  of  mature  onions  is  secured, 
which  sometimes  strikes  a  bare  market  and  is  very  profitable,  while 
the  regular  crop,  coming  in  later,  may  be  worth  much  less. 

Seedlings  for  transplanting  are  grown  in  California  in  the  open 
air,  according  to  conditions  for  germination  described  -  in  Chapter 
XL  Where  there  is  likelihood  of  heavy  rains  the  raised  bed  de- 
scribed in  Chapter  VII,  is  a  safeguard,  but  where  the  soil  naturally 
drains  well,  or  where  rain  is  light,  such  arrangement  is  not  neces- 
sary. Nor  is  it  necessary  that  the  culture  should  be  very  deep.  The 
seed  is  started  in  the  fall,  when  the  rate  of  evaporation  is  reduced, 
shallow  culture  promotes  early  growth  and,  if  the  soil  has  been 
previously  deeply  moistened,  there  is  no  need  of  such  deep  work  as 
would  be  desirable  if  the  plant  was  to  pursue  its  full  course  in  that 
place. 

Some  growers  use  a  little  bottom  heat  by  covering  in  fresh 
horse  manure  with  the  plow  and  shallow  working  the  surface  into 
fine  tilth.  This  practice  is  not  essential.  It  is  best  suited  to  heavy 
soil  and  ample  moisture;  it  has  an  element  of  danger  on  light  soil 
with  scant  moisture.  The  seed  is  sown  at  different  times  in  different 
localities  from  September  to  November — the  early  date  in  northern 
California,  for  the  rains  come  earlier,  the  weather  is  cooler  and  the 
plants  of  slower  growth.  In  the  south  a  later  start  agrees  better 
with  the  rainfall,  and  more  rapid  growth  brings  the  seedling  to 
planting-size  in  less  time. 

The  seed  is  usually  thickly  sown  broadcast,  lightly  covered  and 
rolled  or  pressed  down.  The  surface  is  protected  from  drying  and 
from  packing  by  heavy  rain,  by  a  light  mulch  of  fine  manure,  covered 
with  boards  until  the  shoots  appear,  or  covered  with  a  single  thick- 
ness of  old  sacking  until  the  shoots  begin  to  pierce  it.  Any  device 
which  keeps  the  surface  moist  and  loose  is  applicable.  The  plants 
usually  reach  a  height  of  six  or  eight  inches  at  time  for  trans- 
planting. 


246  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

Transplanting. — Transplanted  onions  are  usually  grown  on 
lighter  soils  than  those  from  seed  because  the  crop  is  to  mature 
earlier  and  is  not  so  dependent  upon  moisture  retention.  Again 
the  lighter,  warmer  soils  give  the  most  rapid  winter  growth,  as 
already  stated.  Preparation  of  the  land  is  the  same  as  for  seed 
sowing  and  the  transplanting  is  done  at  about  the  same  time  of  the 
year — from  February  onward,  according  to  local  climate  and  soil 
condition.  The  plants  are  pulled,  if  the  seed-bed  is  sandy,  and  they 
lift  easily,  or  lifted  with  a  shovel  and  separated.  The  top  and  roots 
are  shortened  about  half  the  length  of  each,  and  the  plants,  dropped 
along  the  rows  by  boys,  are  set,  with  the  finger  or  dibble,  three 
inches  apart  in  rows  twelve  inches  distant,  pressing  the  soil  firmly 
around  the  plant.  Planting  can  be  done  by  line  or  by  indicating  it 
with  a  roller  encircled  by  rope  at  proper  distance  or  by  marking 
out  shallow  furrows  with  the  hand  wheel  hoe,  etc.  The  lines  must 
be  straight  for  ease  and  efficiency  of  subsequent  cultivation,  which 
must  be  clean  and  thorough. 

The  cost  of  growing  seedlings  and  transplanting  is  more  than 
field  seed-sowing,  possibly  about  $25  per  acre,  but  the  weeding  and 
cultivation  of  the  former  is  less.  If  there  is  no  particular  rush 
about  earliness,  transplanting  can  be  done  after  the  most  of  the 
season's  weed-starting  is  over.  Some  growers  count  this  quite  a 
gain.  Transplanted  onions  will  bottom  more  uniformly  and  give  a 
better  stand. 

Growing  from  Sets. — There  are  at  least  three  kinds  of  onion 
sets :  "top  sets"  or  buttons  which  form  on  the  seed  stem  in  the  place 
of  the  seed,  according  to  variety;  "bottom  sets,"  which  are  either 
small  bulbs  from  thickly  sown  seed,  prematurely  ripened,  or  small 
bulbs  which  form  beside  the  old  bulbs  in  some  varieties.  In  Cali- 
fornia the  varieties  which  habitually  produce  top  or  bottom  sets  in 
connection  with  stem  or  bulb  (the  so-called  "tree  onion"  and  "potato 
onion"),  are  not  grown  to  any  extent.  They  are  inferior  to  other 
varieties  which  are  satisfactory  in  this  climate.  All  onion  sets  have 
the  habit  of  proceeding  with  their  enlargement  when  placed  in 
moist  ground,  but  some  growers  find  that  the  bottom  sets  from  seed 
are  more  likely  to  run  to  seed  than  top  sets  from  the  seed  stem. 
Mr.  Adams,  of  Potter  Valley,  is  in  the  habit  of  growing  his  own  top 
sets  in  this  way : 

Plant  the  onions  of  the  variety  which  produces  top  sets  in  the  place  of 
seed,  eight  or  ten  inches  apart,  with  rows  two  feet  apart ;  cultivate  well  and 


ONIONS    FROM    SETS  247 

gather  the  sets  when  the  seed-stalks  are  ripe  or  perfectly  yellow.  Let  the 
sets  get  well  dried,  then  store  in  a  cool,  dry  place  six  or  eight  inches  deep 
on  a  board  floor  and  cover  with  clean,  dry  straw.  Never  put  them  in  sacks, 
boxes  or  barrels,  as  they  will  most  surely  mold. 

In  growing  onions  from  these  top  sets,  I  plant  them  as  early  in  February 
as  the  ground  is  suitable,  on  the  richest  of  my  land ;  make  the  rows  perfectly 
straight  by  using  a  strong  garden  line;  make  rows  one  foot  apart;  press  the 
sets  firmly  into  the  mellow  soil  nearly  or  quite  out  of  sight,  placing  them 
an  inch  or  so  apart.  When  they  are  nicely  up,  a  good  top  dressing  of  fine, 
dry,  decomposed  hen  manure  sown  broadcast  and  well  hoed  in,  is  most 
excellent,  especially  just  before  a  warm  rain.  A  few  weeks  later  a  light 
dressing  of  ground  bone,  or  unleached  ashes,  will  forward  them  wonder- 
fully, and  in  a  short  time  you  will  have  onions  fit  for  an  epicure.  Thin  out 
as  wanted  for  use,  leaving  space  enough  for  those  that  remain  to  mature  for 
winter  use,  or  for  the  purpose  of  raising  top  sets  for  another  year. 

The  foregoing  is  obviously  for  garden,  not  for  field  practice. 
In  fact,  for  field  work,  sets  of  any  kind  are  not  used  to  any  extent 
in  California. 

Bottom  sets  from  seed  are  grown  by  sowing  the  seed  thickly, 
allowing  the  plants  to  grow  without  thinning,  and  to  mature  by 
the  drying  on  the  ground,  when  about  the  size  of  marbles.  These  are 
then  pulled,  dried  thoroughly  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  are 
then  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  place  until  planted. 

Growing  sets  in  California  for  planters  in  distant  states  is 
largely  undertaken  in  Orange  county,  and  one  grower,  G.  A.  Mur- 
dock,  shipped  one  hundred  and  forty  tons  from  thirty-five  acres  in 
1910.  The  sowing  is  timed  to  get  a  succession  in  the  product.  The 
early  varieties,  in  1911,  began  to  be  sown  February  9th.  Sometimes 
the  crop  goes  in  as  early  as  December  and  January.  Following  these 
comes  the  New  Queen  variety,  which  is  followed  by  the  Brown 
Australian.  The  planting  continues  till  June  and  the  harvest  of  the 
late  sown  comes  in  the  fall.  The  early  sets  are  ready  for  shipment 
in  June  and  July,  and  go  mainly  to  Texas  and  Georgia.  The 
handling  of  this  business  is  described  in  this  way : 

In  preparing'  the  sets  for  shipment  the  crop  is  first  pulled  and  spread 
on  racks  prepared  for  that  purpose,  to  be  dried  in  the  sun  for  three  to  five 
weeks.  From  the  field  the  trays  are  hauled  to  the  packing-house,  where 
they  are  dumped  into  the  hopper  of  a  large  circular  separator,  run  by 
machinery,  in  which  the  tops  are  beaten  off.  In  another  machine,  to  which 
the  opions  and  chaff  are  conveyed  by  an  endless  belt,  the  chaff  is  blown 
out.  Thence  the  elevator  takes  the  onions  to  the  grading  machine,  which 
separates  them  into  four  classes  according  to  size,  and  from  which  another 


248  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

elevator  carries  them  upstairs,  where  a  final  sorting  takes  place.  Here  is 
a  long  row  of  machines,  before  each  of  which  an  operator  sits  to  inspect 
the  sets  as  they  pass  along  the  carriage,  while  the  defective  sets  are  cast 
out.  This  double  sorting  insures  a  high-grade  product.  From  here  the 
onions  drop  back  to  the  ground  floor,  where  they  are  sacked  and  crated  for 
shipment.  All  the  machinery  was  invented  by  Mr.  Murdock.  The  average 
per  acre  is  close  to  four  and  a  half  tons.  The  highest  yield  on  record  is 
ten  tons,  while  six  and  seven  are  frequent. 

Irrigation  of  Onions. — Though  our  onion  crops  are  largely 
grown  without  irrigation,  it  is  often  desirable  to  use  water  to  carry 
the  summer  growth  to  satisfactory  size  on  coarse  soils  prone  to  dry 
out.  Water  can  be  applied  by  any  of  the  methods  described  in 
Chapter  V.  Enough  water  should  be  used  to  secure  thrifty,  but  not 
excessive,  growth,  and  stirring  of  the  ground  after  irrigation  should 
only  be  delayed  long  enough  to  bring  the  soil  into  proper  working 
condition. 

Sometimes  transplanting  is  done  in  connection  with  irrigation. 
The  plants  are  properly  trimmed  and  placed  in  the  trenches  along- 
side the  irrigation  furrows,  on  a  slant  to  keep  the  tops  from  the  wet 
ground  (made  so  by  applying  the  water).  They  will  readily  take 
root,  when  they  may  be  straightened  up  by  the  hoe.  Sometimes  the 
water  may  be  passed  through  the  trenches,  when  the  plants  may  be 
put  in  place  by  hand,  when  the  soil  is  in  the  right  condition. 

Harvesting  Onions. — In  the  maturing  of  the  crop  and  the  har- 
vesting California  has  great  advantages  in  a  warm,  dry  summer  and 
early  fall.  Mr.  Murdock,  of  Orange  county,  gives  these  suggestions 
on  harvesting: 

When  the  tops  have  turned  yellow  and  dried  or  shriveled  up  near  the 
bulbs,  and  the  majority  have  fallen  over,  the  crop  is  ripe  and  ready  to  har- 
vest. If  on  moist  land  they  should  be  harvested  at  once,  for  if  left  long  in 
the  ground  the  moisture  from  below  and  heavy  fogs  of  the  coast  region  will 
soon  cause  them  to  start  new  roots,  also  a  new  growth  of  top,  which  would 
soon  spoil  the  whole  crop.  On  dry  land,  however,  the  summer  crop  can 
remain  quite  a  while  without  injury. 

Harvesting  is  done  by  pulling  two  or  more  rows ;  lay  the  onions  next 
to  the  standing  rows,  and  when  across  the  plot,  turn  around  and  pull  a 
like  number  of  rows  and  lay  with  the  ones  previously  pulled.  This  leaves 
them  in  a  continuous  pile  across  the  field  for  topping,  which  is  generally 
done  with  a  sharp  knife  after  the  onions  have  laid  a  few  days  to  more  fully 
mature.  While  topping,  the  bulbs  are  usually  thrown  in  heaps  ready  for 
market  or  to  store  away,  as  the  grower  may  determine.  It  is  best  to  sack 
or  haul  from  the  fields  while  the  sun  shines,  as  the  onions  should  be  per- 
fectly dry  in  either  case. 


GARDEN    CULTURE    OF    ONIONS  249 

Yield. — Ten  tons  per  acre  is  a  fair  yield  on  good  soil,  well 
handled,  but  this  amount  is  frequently  exceeded  and  even  thirty 
tons  has  been  secured,  according  to  credible  testimony. 

Garden  Culture  of  Onions. — Garden  culture  proceeds  upon 
about  the  same  lines  as  field  work,  and  by  methods  already  described. 
Due  regard  should  be  had  for  succession,  and  by  proper  use  of  water 
in  summer  and  of  ridge  or  raised  bed  in  early  winter,  it  is  practicable 
to  have  crisp,  young  onions  all  the  year,  and  mature  ones  with  but 
a  very  short  season  of  storage.  Onions  have  been  matured  from 
seed  sown  every  month  of  the  year,  but  the  ripening  was  not  reached 
every  month  because  progress  is  slower  at  one  time  than  at  another. 

In  the  garden  onions  should  have  the  most  generous  treatment, 
for  delicate  flavor  and  crispness  depend  upon  quick  growth.  The 
use  of  fertilizers  in  preparation  of  the  soil,  and  of  liquid  manure 
during  growth,  are  strong  helps  toward  this.  The  onion  accepts 
gratefully  the  richest  manures. 

The  first  top-onions  in  the  fall  can  be  grown  by  using  bottom 
sets  planted  closely  in  the  row  just  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  well 
moistened  by  early  rains.  The  succession  can  be  had  by  sowing 
seed  at  intervals,  beginning  at  the  same  time  the  sets  are  put  in 
and  continued  when  the  ground  is  in  good  condition  until  spring. 

The  following  method  of  growing  sets  for  garden  use  is  ap- 
proved by  the  experience  of  Mr.  F.  Austin,  of  San  Diego  county, 
who  grows  fine  vegetables  for  the  love  of  it:  Sow  the  seed  in  the 
spring,  say  March,  not  later  than  April,  then  as  the  plants  develop 
in  the  drills  which  have  been  sown  not  too  thick,  and  begin  to  assume 
size  and  form  of  bulb,  at  both  sides  of  the  row  begin  to  remove  the 
earth  with  the  hoe,  the  object  being  to  retard  the  growth  of  top  and 
form  a  "set"  below.  This  is  repeated,  going  along  each  side  of  the 
growing  onions,  removing  the  dirt  and  even  cutting  some  of  the 
roots  a  second  time.  The  tops  begin  to  wither  but  the  bulb  increases 
in  size  until  finally  you  run  the  hoe  entirely  under  the  roots  severing 
them  and  leaving  the  now  new  formed  "sets"  to  dry  for  a  few  days, 
when  you  take  them  by  the  handful  from  the  row  and  shake  off  the 
dirt  and  put  them  away  under  cover  from  the  sun  in  a  cool  place 
until,  say,  October.  Then  plant  these  "sets"  and  they  will  grow  to 
onions  fast  and  in  advance  of  anything  you  can  get  from  seed  and 
give  you  large  juicy  onions. 

Rotation. — The  advantage  of  clean  land  for  onions  has  been 
mentioned.  This  is  often  best  secured  by  allowing  onions  to  follow 


250  CALIFORNIA   VEGETABLES 

carrots  or  potatoes  or  corn.  The  cultivation  of  these  vegetables 
sprouts  and  kills  many  weeds,  which  are  more  easily  handled  in 
connection  with  those  crops  than  with  the  onions.  The  cultivation 
also  renders  the  soil  more  friable,  which  is  a  prime  requisite  to  the 
growth  of  onions. 

Intercropping. — Large  quantities  of  onions  are  grown  in  straw- 
berry regions,  being  irrigated  incidentally  in  connection  with  the 
berries.  The  strawberry  plants  are  on  ridges  in  rows  eighteen  or 
twenty  inches  apart;  the  onion  row  between  the  strawberry  rows 
parallel  thereto  in  the  center  of  the  ridge,  the  ridges  being  also 
eighteen  to  twenty  inches  apart,  so  the  water  runs  down  between  the 
ridges.  Onions  are  also  grown  between  the  trees  in  young  orchard 
on  rich,  deep,  moist,  or  irrigated  land.  This  cannot  be  long  con- 
tinued to  advantage,  as  onions  do  not  take  kindly  to  shade,  but  de- 
light in  full  sunshine. 

Varieties. — Out  of  the  multiude  of  varieties  a  few  have  proved 
most  serviceable  and  satisfactory  for  California  conditions : 

Barletta :  very  early,  small,  pure  white,  smooth  and  handsome ;  largely 
grown  for  pickling,  also  for  early  top  onions  in  garden  culture. 

California  Early  Red:  very  early,  large  size,  flattish,  mild  flavor;  not  a 
good  keeper.  Chiefly  grown  by  Italian  market  gardeners  and  the  variety 
probably  was  introduced  from  Italy. 

New  Queen  or  Pearl :  small,  .early  white,  fine  flavor.  Chiefly  grown,  for 
pickling  and  for  top  onions. 

Silver  Skin  or  White  Portugal:  silvery  white,  medium  size,  excellent 
flavor  and  esteemed  for  table  use.  Small  bulbs  largely  used  for  pickling. 

White  Italian  Tripoli:  very  large,  flat,  white,  rapid  grower  and  produc- 
tive, ships  well,  approved  in  southern  California  as  an  early  variety. 

Prize-Taker  or  Spanish  King:  very  large  and  beautiful,  rich  straw  color, 
flesh  white,  sweet  and  tender ;  productive  and  keeps  well. 

Australian  Brown :  flat,  light  brown,  a  long  keeper  and  good  shipper ; 
very  productive  on  rich,  sandy  soil  with  ample  moisture. 

Australian  Brown  Globe:  popular  in  southern  California;  globular,  light 
brown,  heavy  and  ships  well ;  quick  to  maturity  but  a  long  keeper. 

White  Bermuda :  yellowish  white,  flat,  very  early,  chiefly  grown  in  south- 
ern California  for  early  shipment. 

Red  Bermuda :  resembles  White  Bermuda,  except  in  color. 

Flat   Danvers :   very  early,  yellow,  considerably  grown. 

Yellow  Globe  Danvers :  large,  round,  yields  well  and  keeps  well ;  solid 
and  of  good  flavor.  One  of  the  main  varieties  in  all  parts  of  California. 

Red  Wethersfield :  large,  round,  slightly  flattened,  deep  red  with  white 
flesh,  strongly  flavored,  well  adapted  for  low,  moist  soils,  hardy.  This  and 
Danvers  Globe  constitute  a  main  part  of  the  California  product. 


THE    LEEK  251 

Tree-onion :  a  variety  which  produces  top-sets  instead  of  seed  at  the 
head  of  the  seed  stem.  Used  in  garden  culture  as  already  described.  It 
serves  a  good  purpose  under  certain  conditions,  but  is  very  little  used  in 
this  State. 

THE   LEEK. 

California  produces  large  quantities  of  leek  seed  for  distant 
sale,  but  the  leek  itself  is  but  little  grown  in  California,  except  by 
market  gardeners,  and  its  use  is  chiefly  by  citizens  of  foreign  birth. 
The  edible  part  is  the  blanched  lower  leaves  of  the  plant.  The  cul- 
ture is  at  first  practically  the  same  as  that  described  for  transplanted 
onions,  except  that  the  young  leek  plant  is  deeply  set  in  a  depression 
in  friable  soil,  and  as  it  grows  the  earth  is  drawn  about  the  leaves, 
which  are  tightly  sheathed  together  so  as  to  blanch  them  into  the 
appearance  of  a  thick  white  stem.  Thus  the  later  cultivation  of  the 
plant  resembles  that  of  celery.  It  is  handiest  in  the  garden  to  sow 
the  seed  in  drills  one  foot  apart,  at  intervals  from  fall  to  spring,  so 
as  to  have  a  succession,  and  plant  the  seedlings  when  about  the 
diameter  of  a  goose  quill,  in  the  bottom  of  a  drill  or  furrow  several 
inches  deep.  The  plants  need  wide  spacing,  say  six  to  ten  inches, 
for  they  reach  considerable  thickness  and  make  a  large  display  of 
leaves.  Cultivation  gradually  levels  the  ground.  Leeks  need  ample 
moisture  and  good  cultivation  to  attain  fine  size  and  tenderness.  If 
the  blanching  is  not  particularly  cared  for,  the  plants  may  be  grown 
at  the  surface  just  as  onions  are,  except  for  the  gretater  distance 
the  plant  requires  to  develop.  The  leeks  chiefly  grown  in  California 
are  the  Large  American  Flag,  of  good,  uniform  size,  and  strong 
growth ;  the  Musselburgh,  short,  thick  stem  and  large,  broad  leaves ; 
the  Large  Rouen,  a  large,  strong  variety,  and  the  Monstrous  Cara- 
tan,  with  dark-colored  foliage. 

GARLIC. 

What  is  said  of  the  restricted  local  use  of  the  leek  applies  also 
to  the  garlic.  It  is  grown  with  about  the  same  cultivation  as  the 
onion,  and  the  planting  season  is  of  the  same  duration.  The  method 
is  by  planting  the  bulblets,  or  "cloves,"  taken  out  of  the  silvery  skin 
which  covers  the  bunch,  and  planted  like  onion  sets  about  six  inches 
apart  in  rows  one  foot  distant  from  each  other.  It  may  also  be 
grown  by  planting  whole  cases  of  sets  one  foot  apart  in  the  rows. 
The  planting  should  be  rather  shallow  and  the  soil  should  be  light 
and  well  cultivated  to  allow  the  free  expansion  of  the  bulb. 


252  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

Some  Californians  coming  from  less  favored  countries  are  sur- 
prised to  find  their  garlic  bulbs  flowering  freely  and  wonder  if  the 
bulb  is  valueless  after  that  as  in  the  case  of  onions  going  to  seed. 
Apprehension  is  unnecessary.  The  garlic  is  a  true  perennial  and 
will  keep  on  making  bulblets  while  the  onion  is  short  lived  and  must 
come  again  from  the  seed  more  quickly. 

CHIVES. 

This  is  a  small  plant,  whose  leaves  have  the  onion  flavor  desired, 
in  cookery.  They  are  grown  from  the  small  bulbs,  and  from  thick 
clumps  or  an  edging  for  permanent  garden  beds.  The  leaves  are. 
shorn  off  whenever  desired. 

CIBOULE. 

Another  plant  used  like  chives,  but  of  taller  growth,  is  the 
Welch  onion,  or  ciboule.  It  makes  no  bulb,  but  seeds  freely,  and 
the  plant  develops  rapidly  to  cutting  condition.  The  cultivation  is 
the  same  as  of  onions  grown  from  seed. 

SHALLOT.  i 

Both  the  bulbs  and  leaves  of  this  plant  are  used  to  give  the 
onion  flavor  in  cookery.  Propagation  is  the  same  as  that  of  chives, 
by  means  of  the  small  bulbs,  and  the  culture  is  the  same  as  of  onions 
grown  from  sets. 


CHAPTER   XXVI. 

PEAS. 

THE  GARDEN  PEA. — Pisum  sativum. 

French,  pois  a  ecosser;  German,  schal-erbsen ;  Dutch,  doperwten; 
Danish,  skalcerte;  Italian,  piselli  da  sgranare;  Spanish,  guisantes  para 
desgranar;  Portuguese,  ervilhas  de  grao. 

THE  LENTIL. — Lens  esculenta. 

French,  lentille;  German,  linse;  Dutch,  linze;  Danish,  lindse;  Italian, 
lente;  Spanish,  lenteja;  Portuguese,  lentilha. 

THE  GARBANZO  OR  CHICK  PEA. — Cicer  arietinum. 
French    pois    chiche ;     German,     kicher-erbse ;     Italian,     cece ;     Spanish, 
garbanzos;  Portuguese,  chicaro. 

Dry  heat  is  offensive  to  the  pea,  and  its  occurrence  imposes  the 
chief  limitation  to  the  success  of  this  vegetable  in  California.  The 
escape  from  this  limitation  consists  in  winter  growth,  as  far  as 
practicable,  and  in  recourse  to  the  coast  region  where  atmospheric 
humidity  is  greatest  and  summer  heat  least.  The  pea  is  very  hardy 
against  frost,  and  this  advantage  goes  far  to  compensate  for  its 
susceptibility  to  drought,  because  it  enables  it  to  thrive  in  the  winter 
in  the  very  places  where  it  perishes  in  summer.  The  obvious  de- 
duction is  that  in  regions  dependent  upon  rainfall  the  garden  plant- 
ing of  the  pea  must  be  as  early  in  the  fall  as  adequate  moisture  has 
reached  the  soil,  and  in  regions  where  irrigation  is  available,  it  is 
desirable  that  the  start  should  be  made  in  advance  of  rainfall  for 
the  earliest  product,  and  that  other  plantings  follow  for  a  succession, 
until  it  is  ascertained  what  is  the  latest  date  of  sowing  which  will 
reach  satisfactory  maturity.  If  practice  proceed  upon  this  basis,  the 
pea  will  be  seen  to  have  a  much  longer  season  than  in  wintry  climates 
although,  in  some  places,  midsummer  growth  is  impracticable- 
Most  failures  to  realize  this  satisfaction  with  the  pea  are  due  to  late 
planting  and  failure  to  recognize  that,  in  many  parts  of  the  state,  the 
pea  is  a  winter  and  not  a  summer  plant. 

In  the  growth  of  peas  in  the  field  most  disappointments  have 
followed  the  same  misapprehension,  and  the  interior  has  conceded 

(253) 


254  CALIFORNIA   VEGETABLES 

a  monopoly  of  pea  conditions  to  the  coast  when  the  former  can 
grow  large  amounts  of  forage,  at  least,  by  taking  a  different  time 
of  the  year  for  it.  Fortunately,  this  fact  is  coming  to  be  better 
understood,  and  large  fields  of  peas  are  now  grown  as  winter  feed 
for  dairy  cows  and  in  the  orchard  to  be  plowed  under  early  in  the 
spring  for  green  manuring,  where  only  recently  the  pea  was  sup- 
posed to  be  unsuited  to  the  climate.  These  remarks  apply  to  the 
true  pea,  not  to  the  so-called  "cow-pea,"  which  really  belongs  to  the 
bean  family  and  is  very  susceptible  to  frost  injury. 

Soils  and  Situations  for  the  Pea. — The  pea  succeeds  on  a  wide 
variety  of  soils — a  good,  rich  loam  of  sufficient  retentiveness  being 
the  ideal.  Where  it  is  winter-grown,  with  moderate  heat  and  ample 
moisture,  lighter  soils  can  be  successfully  used,  because  they  are 
warmer  and  dispose  of  the  surplus  water  more  readily.  Though 
the  pea  withstands  much  frost,  it  needs  warmth  for  rapid  advance- 
ment, and  for  this  reason  the  earliest  peas,  as,  for  example,  peas  for 
Christmas  from  September  sowing,  are  grown  where  there  is  little 
frost,  and  hillsides  are  often  used  to  escape  the  heavier  frosts  of  the 
valley  below.  In  moist  bottom  lands  in  the  interior,  and  on  uplands 
near  the  coast,  peas  naturally  thrive  much  later  in  the  season  than 
on  the  interior  plains  and  hillsides,  and  the  latest  green  peas  are 
grown  in  the  moist  lands  of  the  coast  valleys,  moisture  being  retained 
by  cultivation  or  supplied  by  irrigation,  according  to  local  conditions. 
By  using  these  different  situations  green  peas  are  available  for  city 
trade  nearly  the  entire  year. 

Culture. — From  what  has  been  said  it  may  be  inferred  that  the 
pea  at  different  times  of  the  year  is  to  be  handled  with  all  the  arts 
for  releasing  or  retaining  moisture,  which  are  described  in  the 
chapters  on  the  planting  season,  drainage  and  cultivation.  The 
reader  should  study  these,  and  choose  the  methods  adapted  to  the 
soil  and  time  of  the  year  with  which  he  expects  to  operate.  Depth 
of  planting  is  also  governed  by  these  factors,  as  described  in  the 
chapter  on  propagation.  The  pea  will  thrive  with  deep  covering, 
according  to  the  soil  and  moisture — even  to  covering  the  seed  in  a 
plow  furrow  in  a  light  soil — but  in  a  heavier  soil,  with  assurance  of 
moisture,  a  single  inch  of  depth  may  best  favor  its  growth.  Deep 
working  of  the  soil  is  also,  as  a  rule,  acceptable  to  the  pea  and  where 
the  crop  is  to  come  late  and  to  endure  a  measure  of  heat  and 
drought,  deep  working  in  preparation  and  fine  surface  cultivation,  as 
late  as  feasible  without  injury  to  the  vines,  is  necessary.  But,  on 


TO    GROW    EARLY    PEAS  255 

the  other  hand,  for  fall  and  winter  growth  in  some  situations  and 
soils,  such  thorough  work  may  not  be  called  for.  For  winter  work, 
too,  it  is  not  desirable  that  the  surface  should  be  worked  to  a  fine 
mulch ;  surplus  water  is  relieved  by  evaporation  and  the  surface  is 
prevented  from  crusting,  if  a  coarser  condition  is  retained.  The 
pea  plant  gives  every  possible  advantage  to  the  grower :  it  is  strong- 
growing  and  hardy,  and  it  has  a  large  seed  which  makes  a  vigorous 
shoot.  If  the  grower  can  give  it  escape  from  dry  heat  it  will  serve 
him  well  both  in  garden  and  field. 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  pea  needs  a  certain 
amount  of  heat,  though  it  be  small,  and  there  is  nothing  gained  by 
sowing  in  cold,  wet  ground.  In  small,  frosty  valleys  with  heavy 
rainfall  sowing  should  often  be  delayed  until  the  ground  is  warmed 
in  February,  though  on  slopes  above  such  valleys  much  earlier 
work  can  often  be  done  satisfactorily.  The  fitness  of  certain  varie- 
ties for  seasonal  conditions  will  be  considered  presently. 

For  the  Earliest  Peas. — The  earliest  peas,  counting  the  first  of 
July  as  the  beginning  of  the  California  season,  are  in  picking  condi- 
tion in  December,  from  seed  sown -in  August  and  September.  Irri- 
gate the  land  thoroughly,  plow  well,  harrow,  and  sow  the  seed  with 
a  drill  as  nearly  as  practicable  an  inch  apart  in  rows  two  and  a  half 
feet  distant.  Another  way  is  to  open  a  shallow  furrow  with  a  single 
plow,  scatter  the  seed  in  the  furrow  and  cover  with  a  cultivator, 
covering  the  seed  and  stirring  the  space  between  the  rows.  In  grow- 
ing peas  on  hillsides  for  very  early  market,  the  foreigners,  who  are 
the  chief  growers,  depend  much  upon  hand  work  and  bring  the  rows 
nearer  together.  Irrigation  must  be  used  from  time  to  time  to  keep 
the  soil  from  drying  until  the  rains  come  and  subsequently  if  the 
rains  are  light.  The  plants  must  be  pushed  to  bring  well-filled  pods 
and  continual  moisture  is  essential.  Cultivation,  to  keep  the  soil 
clean  and  mellow,  is  necessary.  A  light  harrow  can  be  safely  used 
with  peas  even  after  the  plants  appear.  After  this  the  free  use  of  the 
cultivator  will  be  found  profitable. 

Later  Sowing. — Whether  it  will  be  profitable  to  arrange  for"  a 
succession  of  peas  in  the  early  winter  depends  upon  the  local  soil 
and  climate.  On  light  soils  and  in  regions  of  moderate  rainfall  and 
frost  it  is  quite  feasible,  but  in  most  regions  December  and  January 
bring  the  lowest  temperatures  and  the  longest  rainstorms  of  the  year, 
and  the  ground  is  out  of  condition.  The  advent  of  February  changes 
things  enough  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  pea,  and  then  the 


256  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

sowing  for  the  spring  and  summer  succession  may  begin.  At  first 
the  ridge  or  raised  bed  method  will  give  safety  against  excessive 
water,  but  later  sowings  should  be  made  for  flat  culture  on  soil  most 
thoroughly  prepared  and  well  cultivated  afterwards. 

Field  Growth. — Where  peas  are  sown  for  forage  or  for  a  crop 
of  dry  peas,  sowing  can  be  done  broadcast  on  land  which  has  been 
previously  plowed  and  harrowed,  and  then  the  seed  is  covered  with 
a  shallow  cross-plowing  of  the  whole  field.  If  the  soil  is  friable 
and  a  good  condition  of  moisture,  this  leaves  the  surface  well  loos- 
ened and  able  to  receive  considerable  rain  without  baking.  This 
method  answers  well  on  light  soils  in  the  interior  early  in  the  winter, 
and  the  moist  condition  of  the  upper  coast  valleys  is  also  satisfactory. 
In  the  upper  coast  valleys  peas  can  be  safely  sown  as  late  as  May 
for  summer  crop  and  forage.  Wherever  heat  or  drought  and  hard 
ground  are  likely  to  be  encountered  before  the  vines  cover  the 
ground,  drill  culture  and  cultivation  are  better. 

Peas  in  the  Orchard. — It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  the 
winter  growth  of  peas  in  the  orchard  for  plowing  under  for  green 
manure,  is  gaining  some  popularity  in  this  state.  The  pea  has  the 
power  of  appropriating  atmospheric  nitrogen  and  its  growth  in  the 
winter  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  state  may  be  effected  with  little 
loss  of  moisture  to  the  trees.  Growing  the  pea  crop  in  the  orchard 
to  be  gathered  green  for  canners'  use  has  also  been  successfully  done 
in  this  state,  where  the  trees  are  small.  The  pea  is  probably  one  of 
the  least  injurious  of  the  inter-cultures  and  under  certain  conditions 
may  be  of  actual  benefit  to  the  trees.  For  this  purpose  the  crop 
should  be  gathered  and  the  green  vine  plowed  in  as  early  as  possible. 

No  Support  for  Peas. — Peas  are  chiefly  grown  as  a  prostrate 
crop  in  California  both  in  garden  and  field.  The  preference  is  for 
the  dwarf  or  medium  high  kinds  and  they  are  allowed  to  stand  or 
mat  down  as  they  see  fit.  It  better  suits  a  climate  where  reclining 
on  the  ground  very  rarely  induces  mildew  and  where  the  covering 
of  the  ground  assists  in  maintaining  the  coolness  and  moisture  of 
soil  which  delights  the  pea. 

Varieties. — Of  the  two  main  divisions  of  pea  varieties,  the 
smooth  and  the  wrinkled  skins,  the  smooth  are  the  more  hardy  and 
can  be  safely  grown  early.  The  smooth  pea  may  resist  decay  and 
grow  where  the  wrinkled  seed  will  perish.  And  yet  the  wrinkled 
pea  is  so  popular  that  wrinkled  varieties  have  almost  excluded  the 
smooth  kinds. 


VARIETIES    OF    PEAS 


257 


Alaska :  tall-growing,  small  smooth  pea,  pod  short,  well  filled ;  very  early. 

American  Wonder:  dwarf,  wrinkled,  very  compact  growth,  productive 
and  early,  fine  quality,  very  sweet,  the  leading  early  pea  in  California. 

McLean's  Little  Gem :  dwarf,  wrinkled,  very  early,  productive,  rich  and 
sweet. 

Nott's  Excelsior:  resembles  Amercan  Wonder;  larger  growing  and  more 
productive;  fine  quality;  long  bearing  period;  excellent  home  garden  pea. 

Gradus:   earliest  of  its  height;   pods  large;   peas  delicious. 

Premium  Gem:  an  improved  Little  Gem  with  larger  pods. 

Yorkshire  Hero  (also  called  Alameda  Sweet)  :  later  than  dwarf  varieties ; 
most  popular  in  all  parts  of  the  state  for  main  crop;  strong  grower,  with 
branching  habit;  large  pods  well  filled  with  large,  wrinkled  peas;  keeps  in 
condition  on  vine  longer  than  other  varieties. 

Stratagem :  strong  grower,  with  large  showy  pods ;  peas  large,  of  good 
flavor. 

Champion   of  England :   well-known  late  variety,  largely  used  by  canners. 

Telephone :  late,  very  productive,  large  pods ;  peas  sugary ;  largely  grown 
and  sometimes  very  profitable. 

Edible  Pod  or  Sugar  Peas. — Although  California  interest  is  al- 
most wholly  centered  in  the  shelling  varieties  of  peas,  there  has  re- 
cently been  some  attention  paid  in  home  gardens  to  the  edible  pod 
varieties  which  are  used  in  the  kitchen  as  are  string  or  snap  beans. 
They  are  available  because  of  their  hardiness  at  times  of  the  year 
when  string  beans  can  only  be  had  from  frostless  regions  if  at  all. 
Their  culture  is  the  same  as  for  other  kinds  of  peas. 

LENTILS. 

Though  of  another  botanical  genus,  lentils  are  best  classed  with 
peas.  They  are  quite  hardy  and  make  a  good  winter  growth.  They 
may  be  used  green  as  peas  are,  but  are  hardly  as  desirable.  The 
dry  seeds  are  used  in  soups,  stews,  etc.  Lentils  are  rarely  seen  in 
California,  probably  because  peas  are  preferred,  not  only  because  of 
flavor,  but  because  of  more  easy  handling.  The  lentil  bears  but  two 
seeds  in  a  pod.  Owing  to  their  early  winter  growth  they  may  come 
into  use  here  for  cattle  food  as  in  Europe. 

GARBANZOS. 

Another  two-seeded  pod  bearer  is  the  garbanzo  or  chick  pea, 
which  is  a  hairy  plant  of  the  vetch  family.  Its  uses  are  like  those 
of  lentils,  but  it  has  also  served  widely  as  a  coffee  substitute.  Its 
culture  is  easy,  like  the  pea  in  method,  but  the  product  is  always 
used  dry  or  mature.  The  plant  is  more  hardy  against  drouth  than 
the  peas.  Its  production  in  California  is  small,  but  seems  to  be 
increasing. 


CHAPTER    XXVII. 

PEPPERS. 

CHILE  PEPPER. — Capsicum  annuum. 

French,   piment;    German,    pfeffer;    Dutch,    Spaansche    peper;     Italian, 
peperone;  Spanish,  pimiento;  Portuguese,  pimento. 

The  settlement  of  California  by  people  of  Spanish  birth  or 
descent  naturally  brought  the  pepper  into  early  prominence  in  this 
state,  and  the  considerable  fraction  of  our  population  which  now 
traces  to  south  of  Europe  nations  serves  to  hold  the  plant  in  popu- 
larity. American  citizens  have  also  wide  liking  for  the  pepper  in 
some  of  its  uses,  and  the  result  is,  large  local  demand  for  the  capsules 
both  in  green  and  mature  states.  There  is  this  main  division  in  the 
demand, — the  northern  races  prefer  the  large,  green,  mild  varie- 
ties ;  the  southern  races  chiefly  use  that  which  is  ripe,  red,  and  fiery 
in  flavor.  But  of  course  this  distinction  is  noj:  to  be  pushed  too  far. 
Each  kind  has  its  uses  which  are  observed  by  all  consumers.  In  the 
California  markets  the  two  kinds  or  conditions  stand  side  by  side  in 
such  quantities  as  to  make  them  conspicuous. 

Though  the  pepper  is  usually  an  annual,  it  carries  its  profitable 
productive  life  into  the  second  year  in  the  thermal  regions  of  the 
state.  The  stem  has  a  tendency  to  become  woody  and  after  a  period 
of  partial  dormancy,  it  sends  out  new  shoots  and  bears  its  second 
crop.  This  can  not,  however,  be  expected  in  a  frosty  location. 

Garden  Culture. — Peppers  are  usually  grown  from  plants 
started  early  by  artificial  heat  in  the  same  manner  indicated  for  egg- 
plant. Planting  out  should  be  done  after  danger  of  frost  is  over 
and  the  soil  is  well  warmed  by  the  sun.  Later  plants  may  be  grown 
by  planting  the  seed  in  drills  in  the  open  ground,  thinning  the  plants 
afterward  to  suitable  distance.  Moisture  should  be  evenly  main- 
tained by  cultivation  or  irrigation  as  needed,  but  excessive  water  is 
undesirable  at  all  times  from  the  seed  sowing  onward.  The  plants 
will  endure  heat  and  drouth,  but  the  fruiting  is  deficient  in  size  and 
quantity,  and  for  the  best  success,  especially  with  the  large  varieties, 

(258) 


CULTURE    OF    PEPPERS  259 

rich,  light  soil,  well  cultivated  and  adequately  moist,  is  a  requisite. 
The  distance  between  the  plants  depends  upon  method  of  cultivation. 
In  the  hand-worked  garden,  the  plants  may  be  set  a  foot  apart  in 
rows,  eighteen  inches  distant. from  each  other,  but  usually  greater 
distance  is  better,  and  for  horse  work  the  rows  should  be  two  or 
three  feet  apart. 

Field  Culture. — Field  culture  for  canning  and  for  the  trade  in 
dried  peppers  is  pursued  on  a  large  scale  in  southern  California, 
especially  in  Orange  county,  on  the  deep  loams  of  the  gentle  slope 
oceanward.  An  outline  of  methods  is  prepared  from  data  fur- 
nished by  Mr.  Allan  Knapp  of  Anaheim,  who  is  widely  acquainted 
with  local  experience  in  the  pepper  district. 

Seed. — It  is  exceedingly  important  to  have  a  good  type  of 
plant,  and  this  can  be  secured  by  selecting  pods  in  the  field,  to 
furnish  seed  for  the  following  year,  from  low  bushy  vines  full  of 
pods  of  medium  length.  A  tall  bush  will  not  produce  as  many  pods 
and  it  is  more  liable  to  be  broken  by  strong  winds  when  loaded  with 
fruit.  Besides  the  end  of  the  pods  from  a  low  plant  will  rest  on 
the  ground,  and  in  that  position  they  will  prop  up  the  branches, 
providing  you  keep  crowding  a  little  earth  to  the  row  at  each  cul- 
tivation, as  will  be  described  later. 

When  these  seed  pods  are  gathered  put  them  on  a  string  and 
hang  up  to  dry  against  the  south  end  of  a  building.  Do  not  put 
them  into  the  evaporator  when  hotter  than  110  to  115°.  They  may 
stand  more  heat,  but  perhaps  only  50%  of  the  seed  may  germinate 
quickly,  and  the  other  half  may  delay  a  week  longer  than  those 
dried  i-n  the  sun;  neither  will  it  make  so  strong  a  plant. 

Gr ozving  Seedlings. — Select  a  location  for  the  seed  bed  where 
good  drainage  may  be  had.  Sandy  soil  is  best,  but  not  so  poor 
that  it  contains  no  plant  food  to  nourish  the  young  plant.  Plow 
and  level  the  plot,  harrowing  or  raking  with  a  hand  rake,  as  only 
a  small  piece  of  land  is  used;  sow  seed  about  March  15  in  rows 
three  inches  apart,  covering  one-quarter  of  an  inch.  On  this 
spread  one-quarter  inch  with  sand.  Start  your  seed  beside  a  large 
tree,  if  you  have  one,  and  you  will  have  fair  success.  The  tree 
will  drain  your  land.  If  the  young  plants  begin  to  die  by  "damp- 
ing off,"  take  a  trowel  and  dig  out  the  affected  spots  and  throw 
them  away.  The  plants  should  have  five  or  six  leaves  on  before 
transplanting  commences.  Wet  the  soil  of  the  seed  bed  thoroughly 
before  lifting  the  plants,  as  the  roots  are  damaged  less. 


260  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

Field  Planting. — Plow  the  field  deeply  early  in  the  winter  and 
keep  down  weeds  by  shallow  cultivation  until  planting  time,  when 
danger  of  frost  is  past.  The  chile  plant  is  very  sensitive  to  cold. 
May  1  is  a  good  time  for  planting.  Mark  fields  off  in  rows  4~/2 
feet  apart  and  set  2*/2  feet  apart  in  rows.  Should  the  weather  be 
dry  and  irrigation  necessary  plow  a  furrow  beside  each  mark  and 
run  water  in  these  furrows  before  and  after  planting,  and  if  the 
weather  be  very  hot  two  or  three  irrigations  may  be  necessary  to 
start  plants.  Always  allow  24  hours  after  irrigating  before  plants 
are  set,  unless  soil  is  very  sandy.  Then  work  may  commence 
sooner. 

When  through  with  the  irrigation  furrows,  plow  back  and 
cultivate  the  land  until  level  as  before.  Keep  soil  in  good  growing 
condition  always.  When  plants  are  12  to  15  inches  high  use  a 
ridger  (such  as  is  used  in  raising  levees  for  irrigation  checks)  with 
plenty  of  space  open  behind  and  straddle  each  row,  thus  drawing 
the  earth  to  each  side  of  plant  and  giving  it  support.  Water  may 
be  run  down  these  rows  at  this  time.  As  plants  grow  make  the 
ridge  wider  with  a  crowder  run  in  between  each  row.  This  ridge 
will  keep  plants  from  breaking  down  so  readily  when  laden  with 
fruit,  and  when  fruit  strikes  the  ground  it  will  not  decay  so  readily 
because  the  ridge  will  be  dry.  Do  not  make  your  first  ridging  too 
high,  and  do  not  do  the  work  too  late ;  if  so,  the  first  setting  will  be 
greatly  injured  by  pushing  the  earth  against  the  fruit,  thus  leaving 
no  room  for  it  to  grow,  and  many  pods  will  be  curly  and  eaten  by 
bugs. 

Gathering  and  Curing. — During  September  the  fruit  will  be- 
gin to  ripen,  the  time  of  ripening  depending  upon  the  soil  and  the 
care  of  the  crop.  In  sandy  soil  the  fruit  will  ripen  quicker  than 
in  deep  sediment.  If  the  plants  lack  moisture  they  will  ripen  much 
faster,  which  looks  well,  but  they  should  be  kept  green  as  long  as 
possible.  It  pays  better  in  the  end. 

The  crop  should  be  picked  as  each  setting  ripens ;  go  over  the 
field  three  or  four  times.  A  pod  should  be  left  on  the  vine  until 
of  a  dark  red  and  it  has  lost  its  hardness,  being  somewhat  pliable. 
Have  the  crop  gathered  in  large  baskets,  but  they  should  be 
hauled  in  boxes  rather  than  sacks,  as  they  are  less  liable  to  be 
bruised,  and  a  bruised  pod  is  liable  to  decay  unless  dried  at  once. 
If  peppers  are  to  be  dried  on  strings,  have  them  dumped  on  a  table 
or  on  the  ground,  as  you  prefer.  Allow  24  to  48  hours  for  stems 


VARIETIES    AND    SOILS    FOR    PEPPERS  261 

to  wilt  after  gathering  before  they  are  put  on  the  string.  This 
work  is  done  by  running  a  twine  through  the  stem  of  each  chile, 
the  twine  to  be  10^  to  11  feet,  and  same  may  be  hung  on  a  scaffold 
to  dry  or  put  into  especially  made  evaporators.  Some  growers 
report  favorably  on  drying  their  crop  on  trays  instead  of  on  twine. 
During  recent  years  most  of  the  drying  has  been  done  in  evapo- 
rators, which  is  accomplished  by  artificial  heat  in  six  or  eight  days. 

Soils  for  the  Commercial  Crop. — Although  peppers  can  be  suc- 
cessfully grown  in  any  good  garden  soil,  it  is  important  for  the 
field  crop  to  choose  deep,  rich,  sandy  loam,  or  sediment  soil,  which 
will  not  bake  very  rapidly.  The  young  plants  must  be  set  in  damp 
soil  and  if  land  should  easily  bake  it  will  become  hard  and  will  dry 
out  more  readily  about  the  young  plant  and  the  growth  will  be 
very  slow.  It  is  not  wise  to  grow  more  than  two  crops  of  peppers 
on  even  the  best  of  soils  without  fertilizing  very  liberally.  Cover 
crops  plowed  under  are  found  very  profitable. 

The  Yield. — At  Garden  Grove  in  Orange  county  in  1911  Allen 
Brothers  grew  twenty-five  acres  which  averaged  a  ton  of  cured 
peppers  to  the  acre.  The  price  received  ranged  from  $180  to  $200 
per  ton.  Besides  the  crop  of  ripe  peppers  produced  and  sold  by 
the  firm,  75  tons  of  green  peppers  were  marketed  at  $175  per 
cured  ton.  Four  other  large  chile  dryers  were  at  work  in  1911  in 
the  same  vicinity. 

Varieties.— The  varieties  chiefly  grown  for  home  use  and  mar- 
keting green  are  Large  Bell  or  Bull-nose,  an  early  variety  of  mild 
flavor,  fruit  large,  slightly  tapering  and  generally  terminating  in 
four  obtuse,  cone-like  points.  It  is  a  favorite  sort,  both  for  pickling 
and  for  table  use.  Sweet  Mountain  is  another  popular  variety  sim- 
ilar to  the  foregoing,  but  larger  and  milder  in  flavor,  and  Chinese 
Giant  is  an  immense  pepper,  often  twice  as  large  as  Large  Bell. 

The  standard  for  hot  pepper  and  for  the  dried  crop  is  the 
Mexican  chile,  long,  narrow  pods  on  a  low-growing,  narrow-  leaved 
plant.  One  type  is  a  very  dark,  thick-meated,  cone-shaped  chile, 
growing  from  4  to  6  inches  long,  which  is  gaining  ground;  while 
the  Long  Red,  or  Anaheim  Chile,  having  pods  from  6  to  10  inches 
long,  is  the  best  known.  The  plant  is  strong  and  holds  its  fruit  up 
well  and  is  very  productive.  There  is  also  a  longer  variety  with 
pods  up  to  fourteen  inches  in  length,  which,  however,  is  claimed 
to  be  less  productive  and  light  when  dried,  though  the  flesh  is 
quite  thick  when  green. 


CHAPTER   XXVIII. 

POTATOES. 

THE  POTATO. — Solanum  tuberosum. 

French  pomme  de  terre ;   German,  kartoffel ;  Dutch,  aardappel ;  Danish, 
jordepeeren;   Italian,  patata;   Spanish  and  Portuguese,  patatas. 

THE  SWEET  POTATO. — Convolvulus  batatas. 
French,  patate  douce ;  Italian,  patata ;  Spanish  and  Portuguese,  batata. 

Potatoes  may  be  grown  everywhere  in  California  without  irri- 
gation, except  on  strictly  arid  plains  and  deserts,  and  it  needs  but 
slight  watering  to  enable  the  light  but  rich  soils  of  the  arid  regions 
to  surpass  the  naturally  moist  lands  both  in  the  size  and  quality  of 
their  produce.  Some  of  the  grandest  potatoes  ever  grown  in  the 
state  have  been  taken  from  light,  warm  soils  whose  natural  growth 
was  sagebrush  and  other  desert  flora.  The  superiority  of  the  higher, 
lighter  lands,  either  with  adequate  rainfall  or  irrigation,  to  the 
moist  lowlands  of  the  interior  river  bottoms  or  the  coast  valleys, 
have  been  clearly  recognized  during  recent  years.  In  the  earlier 
days,  the  coast  and  interior  river  bottoms  were  supposed  to  be,  par 
excellence,  the  potato  regions,  and  their  products  were  transported 
great  distances  to  interior  uplands  which  were  thought  to  be  unfit 
for  the  plant.  Now  the  choicest  potatoes  are  grown  in  these  places 
and  the  production  in  the  older  regions  has  decreased,  though  the 
potato  still  constitutes  an  important  crop.  The  present  situation  is, 
that  the  potato  fields  may  be  seen  everywhere  from  the  skirts  of 
the  cliffs  which  look  down  upon  the  ocean,  along  the  bottoms  and 
sides  of  the  coast  valleys,  on  the  reclaimed  lands  and  benches  of 
the  great  interior  rivers,  up  the  slopes  of  the  foothills  and  in  the 
mountain  valleys  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  out  beyond,  upon  the 
stretches  of  sagebrush,  wherever  water  can  be  had  to  turn  the 
desert  into  a  garden.  California  has  a  capacity  for  potato  produc- 
tion beyond  the  ability  of  any  available  market  to  handle,  and 
though  a  few  years  ago  it  seemed  likely  that  our  climatic  advantages 
in  early  production  would  give  us  command  of  distant  consumption 
(262) 


264  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES 

at  certain  times  of  the  year,  it  has  since  been  shown  that  much  less 
can  be  profitably  done  in  this  direction  than  was  anticipated.  There 
have  been  in  some  years  very  large  shipments  at  reduced  freight 
rates  when  the  eastern  production  was  deficient,  but  the  potato  is 
ordinarily  too  cheap  an  article  to  endure  the  cost  of  long  transpor- 
tation. Statistics  of  the  California  product  are  given  in  Chapter  I. 

Situations. — Though,  as  has  been  stated,  the  potato  grows 
wherever  adequate  moisture  is  assured,  there  is  much  difference 
in  the  times  of  the  year  at  which  maturity  is  attained.  Though 
the  potato  is  a  tender  plant  it  will  endure  light  frosts,  nor  does  it 
always  yield  its  life  when  the  frost  blights  the  foliage.  Dormant 
buds  lower  on  the  stem  develop  into  a  new  top  growth.  It  is,  there- 
fore, possible  to  secure  fall  and  even  winter  growth  in  places  where 
a  strictly  tender  plant  like  the  bean  would  perish.  Where  only 
light  frosts  occur  and  where  irrigation  is  provided  to  supplement 
rainfall,  it  is  possible  to  have  new  potatoes  all  the  year  and  to  bring 
to  edible  condition  three  crops  successively  on  the  same  ground 
within  a  twelve  month,  though  it  is,  of  course,  better  to  let  the 
potato  take  its  place  in  a  rotation. 

New  Potatoes. — The  first  new  potatoes  from  a  California  point 
of  view,  would  be  the  crop  that  comes  with  the  first  green  peas, 
counting  July  1  as  the  beginning  of  the  year.  In  fact  the  first  po- 
tatoes and  peas  come  from  the  same  localities.  They  make  their 
growth  in  the  fall  from  planting  on  ground  well  soaked  by  irriga- 
tion in  July  and  August.  The  regions  for  this  work  are  those  in 
which  fall  frosts  are  light  or  do  not  occur  at  all — the  thermal  belts 
at  different  elevations  on  the  hillsides  both  on  the  Coast  Range  and 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  also  on  the  warm  interior  plains,  but  not  usually 
on  the  river  bottoms  nor  on  the  low  places  in  small  valleys.  Owing, 
however,  to  the  partial  resistance  to  frost  of  the  potato,  there  are 
very  wide  areas  both  on  the  coast  and  in  the  interior  of  central  and 
southern  California,  where  the  fall  growth  of  potatoes  is  safe  and 
worth  wider  attention  than  is  given  to  it  by  home  gardeners.  Where 
irrigation  may  be  had  to  start  the  seed  well  the  fall  rains  usually 
carry  on  the  growth. 

Planting  for  what  may  be  called  the  second  run  of  new  pota- 
toes requires  stricter  attention  to  thermal  conditions.  This  crop 
must  be  growing  in  December  and  January,  which  are  our  months 
of  heaviest  frosts  and  rainfall  usually.  Strictly  thermal  belts,  to  be 
found  at  different  elevations  on  hillsides,  generally  within  the  reach 
of  ocean  influences  in  the  south  half  of  the  California  coast  line,  but 


MAIN    CROP    OF    POTATOES  265 

also  here  and  there  on  the  hillsides  of  the  interior,  favor  the  growth 
of  the  potato  all  through  the  winter,  if  the  soil  be  light  and  kept 
warm  by  free  escape  of  surplus  water  and  abundant  winter  sun- 
shine. 

The  third  run  of  new  potatoes  is  secured  by  the  planting  of 
the  early  varieties  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  heaviest  frosts  of 
the  locality  are  over,  and  the  soil  becomes  warm  enough  to  push 
growth.  This  is  the  main  potato  planting  season  of  California,  and 
covers  a  wide  range  of  dates,  beginning  with  January  on  light,  wellT 
drained  soils  at  the  south  to  get  the  earliest  new  potatoes  for  east- 
ern shipment  in  May;  proceeding  in  February,  not  only  in  the 
south,  but  on  warm  uplands  all  through  the  central  portion  of  the 
state,  and  continuing  with  planting  all  through,  March,  April  and 
May,  as  spring  conditions  come  successively  to  the  upper  coast 
valleys  and  the  mountain  regions,  or  as  the  river  lowlands  are 
drained  of  their  surplus  water.  In  fact  on  interior  river  lands 
planting  is  done  as  late  as  June  and  July  and  the  crop  comes  on 
rapidly  with  ample  heat  and  moisture.  Thus  it  appears  that  potato 
planting  covers  the  entire  year,  and  that  while  some  parts  of  the 
state  are  digging  their  main  crop,  other  parts  are  making  their  first 
planting.  To  bring  the  matter  nearer  to  a  point  it  may  be  said 
that  a  man  in  the  central  coast  region  may  be  eating  new  potatoes 
from  his  hillside  while  he  is  planting  his  main  crop  on  his  lowlands. 
And  yet  one  is  frequently  asked  to  answer  categorically  the  ques- 
tion: "When  do  you  plant  potatoes  in  California?"  Obviously  it 
is  a  local  question,  to  be  learned  by  experience,  observation  and  in- 
quiry, in  accordance  with  the  general  conditions  outlined  in  the 
chapter  on  the  planting  season  in  California.  In  connection,  how- 
ever, with  this  wide  liberty  in  planting,  taking  the  state  as  a  whole, 
it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  local  requirements  are  sometimes 
very  sharp  and  that  planting  on  the  interior  plains  or  in  other  parts 
of  the  state  where  there  is  high  heat  and  drought,  or  the  soil  be- 
comes dry  even  with  moderate  heat,  planting  must  be  undertaken 
early  enough  to  allow  a  large  part  of  the  development  of  the  plant 
before  such  stress  comes.  Local  failures  with  potatoes  may,  there- 
fore, be  often  attributed  to  neglect  of  planting  as  soon  as  moisture 
and  temperature  conditions  favor  growth  in  each  locality. 

Soils. — Light,  rich  loams  are  best  for  potatoes  as  they  favor 
root  extension  and  expansion  of  tubers  and  they  are  retentive 
enough  to  hold  the  moderate  amount  of  moisture  which  ministers 


266  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

to  the  highest  quality.  Very  near  the  coast  well-cultivated,  light 
uplands  receive  atmospheric  moisture  enough  to  sustain  the  deep 
verdure  of  the  potato  fields,  while  the  pastures  are  sere  and  yellow. 
Summer  growth  on  interior  plains  and  foothill  slopes  and  mountain 
plateaus  is-  sustained  by  less  irrigation  than  many  other  crops  re- 
quire, and  winter  growth,  whenever  feasible,  is  best  on  light,  free 
soils.  The  sediment  and  peat  of  the  river  lands  are  also,  in  their 
season,  light  and  warm.  But  the  potato  insists  upon  adequate 
moisture,  though  its  claim  is  moderate.  It  cannot  give  satisfaction 
unless  its  moisture  requirements  are  met. 

Heavy  soils  in  garden  culture  can  be  greatly  improved  as 
described  in  Chapter  IV.  Early  and  deep  working  of  the  soil  and 
the  plowing  in  of  rotten  straw  and  compost  and  thorough  mixture 
of  these  materials  through  the  soil  will  have  marked  effect,  but 
heavy  land  potatoes  seldom  have  the  beauty  and  flavor  of  the 
product  of  the  light,  rich  loams. 

Culture. — Deep  working  of  the  soil  is  essential  in  preparation 
for  potatoes  as  has  already  been  urged  for  beets  and  other  root 
crops.  The  soil  must  be  made  mellow  to  a  good  depth  and  kept 
mellow  by  subsequent  cultivation. 

Unless  the  seed  potatoes  are  old  and  show  active  eyes,  they 
should  be  exposed  to  sunlight  for  several  weeks  to  advance  germi- 
nation. This  is  especially  the  case  when  the  tubers  of  an  early  crop 
are  used  for  later  planting  the  same  season. 

All  proposed  methods  of  seed-cutting  have  been  tried  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  each  has  its  advocates.  When  the  soil  and  season  favor, 
excellent  crops  are  grown  from  small  potatoes  used  as  seed,  but 
generally  the  selected  fair-sized,  merchantable  potatoes,  cut  into 
quarters  lengthwise,  produce  best  results.  Cutting  should  not  be 
done  too  long  before  planting,  to  guard  against  too  great  drying  of 
the  seed.  Distance  between  pieces  in  the  furrow  depends  upon  the 
tendency  of  the  potatoes  to  grow  too  large.  This  is  often  corrected 
by  dropping  more,  thickly.  The  range  is  from  twelve  to  twenty 
inches  usually. 

In  the  field  much  planting  is  done  with  the  plow  by  dropping 
the  "seed"  in  every  third  or  fourth  furrow  so  as  to  bring  the  roots 
about  three  feet  apart,  and  covering  with  the  following  furrow. 
Depth  of  planting  depends  upon  season  and  soil  as  described  in 
Chapter  XI ;  the  same  principles  governing  as  in  the  planting  of 
seed.  After  the  seed  is  plowed  in  to  a  depth  of  four  to  eight  inches, 


IRRIGATION    AND    CULTIVATION  267 

according  to  season  and  soil,  a  thorough  cross-harrowing  should 
leave  the  field  in  good  shape.  On  light  soils  disposed  to  be  dry,  a 
light  rolling  may  be  beneficial.  As  soon  as  the  plants  appear,  har- 
rowing with  the  rows  mellows  the  surface,  kills  small  weeds,  and 
does  not  hurt  the  potatoes.  Cultivation  between  the  rows  should 
soon  follow  and  the  surface  should  be  kept  loose  until  the  plants 
are  quite  high.  Good,  clean  culture  is  the  rule  with  potatoes.  In 
some  soils,  not  disposed  to  dry  out  too  rapidly  nor  to  crust,  crops 
are  often  made  with  little  cultivation  after  weeds  stop  growing, 
especially  where  the  plant  has  the  benefit  of  coast  influences,  but 
cultivation  for  moisture  retention,  where  needed,  must  be  more 
thorough. 

On  lands  subject  to  excess  of  moisture,  winter  growth  of  po- 
tatoes can  be  facilitated  by  the  ridge  planting  described  in  Chapter 
VII;  but  where  this  is  not  likely  to  occur,  flat  culture  is  best,  both 
in  winter  and  summer.  Where  potatoes  are  to  be  irrigated  a  slight 
moving  of  the  soil  toward  the  row,  so  as  to  make  the  interspace  a 
little  hollow  to  carry  water,  is  admissible,  but  "hilling  up"  is  un- 
necessary and  dangerous.  It  usually  uncovers  the  firm  soil  and 
exposes  the  roots  to  too  great  heat  and  drought.  It  is  also  likely 
to  bring  the  tubers  within  reach  of  the  moth  from  whose  eggs  come 
the  potato  worms.  During  the  latter  part  of  the  growth  the  tuber 
should  be  well  covered  with  soil. 

Irrigation. — The  potato  should  be  kept  growing  thriftily  from 
start  to  finish.  If  growth  is  arrested  by  drought,  a  new  growth  of 
small  potatoes  is  apt  to  start  upon  renewal  of  moisture,  to  the  detri- 
ment of  the  crop.  The  aim  should  be,  then,  to  keep  the  soil  ade- 
quately moist  until  maturity  approaches.  This  is  best  done  by  run- 
ning small  streams  between  the  rows,  the  planting  having  been  ar- 
ranged for  this  distribution.  As  already  stated,  excessive  irriga- 
tion is  decidedly  detrimental  to  the  quality  of  the  crop,  and  extra 
effort  must  be  made  for  even  distribution  of  the  water.  To  allow 
low  places  to  fill  up  with  water  is  injurious  and  to  allow  the  water 
to  come  in  contact  with  the  plant  stems  is  also  dangerous.  A  good, 
thorough  and  uniform  wetting  of  the  soil  is  often  enough  to  finish 
the  crop  and  it  is  seldom  desirable  to  irrigate  after  the  bloom  ap- 
pears. Thorough  surface  cultivation  should  follow  the  irrigation, 
for  the  reasons  stated  in  the  chapter  on  that  subject. 

In  connection  with  the  irrigation  of  potatoes  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  many  troubles  may  arise  from  irregularity  in  the  moist- 


268  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES 

ure  supply  of  the  growing  tuber.  Sometimes  potatoes  are  planted 
on  ground  which  is  dry  underneath  instead  of  being  well  wet  down 
either  by  irrigation  or  rainfall.  Potatoes  grow  more  regularly  if 
they  do  not  have  intermittent  moisture  supply,  therefore  it  is  better 
to  soak  the  ground  before  plowing,  bringing  the  crop  along  that 
way  if  possible,  or  irrigating  subsequently  as  may  seem  to  be  neces- 
sary, but  in  no  case  should  the  plant  be  allowed  to  arrest  its  growth 
and  start  again  after  irrigation.  Of  course,  when  potatoes  have 
stopped  growth  and  are  subsequently  irrigated,  the  irrigation  can- 
not cure  the  trouble,  but  really  increases  it,  because  it  causes  a 
second  growth  to  be  made.  The  potato  must  be  kept  moving  or  it 
will  move  the  wrong  way. 

Mulching. — For  the  last  twenty-five  years  the  practice  of  grow- 
ing potatoes  on  the  interior  plains  by  the  help  of  a  straw  mulch  has 
been  followed  to  some  extent.  It  has  recently  been  proposed  at  the 
east  as  a  new  method,  but  it  is  really  quite  old.  The  seed  is  plowed 
in  with  a  shallow  furrow  so  as  to  cover  about  three  or  four  inches, 
then  cover  the  whole  surface  with  partly  decayed  straw  from  an 
old  stack  or  with  coarse  manure.  The  mulch  will  retain  moisture 
enough  to  mature  a  crop.  There  need  be  no  plowing,  hoeing,  nor 
weeding,  and  it  is  held  by  those  who  advocate  the  method,  that  the 
labor  of  putting  on  straw  is  compensated  for  in  the  saving  of  hoe- 
ing and  weeding.  It  is  also  a  safe  way  to  grow  early  potatoes  in 
frosty  places  because  the  mulch  protects  the  dormant  buds  at  the 
base  of  the  stems  and  new  foliage  quickly  grows  if  the  old  is  nipped 
by  frost.  Potato  sprouts  are  sometimes  saved  from  frost  injury  by 
turning  light  soil  over  them  lightly:  subsequently  they  may  be  un- 
covered or  allowed  to  grow  through. 

Harvesting. — Potato  diggers  or  plows  are  used  to  some  extent 
in  California,  but  the  common  method  of  gathering  is  by  means  of 
a  long-handled  shovel  which  is  dexterously  pushed  beneath  the 
plant  so  that  all  the  tubers  are  thrown  out  at  one  operation.  The 
yield  of  potatoes  varies  from  five  to  nine  tons  per  acre  on  good 
soil,  properly  cultivated. 

Storing. — As  the  summer  and  fall  climate  of  California  is  al- 
most rainless  and  the  frosts  seldom  severe  enough  to  freeze  a  po- 
tato in  a  sack,  the  tubers  are  generally  sacked  and  piled  in  the  field 
for  weeks  and  months.  This  advantage  is  turned  by  careless  grow- 
ers into  a  disadvantage,  because  the  potatoes  are  often  seriously 
injured  by  heat  and  light  and  shriveled  by  dry,  hot  winds.  Potatoes 


VARIETIES    OF    POTATOES  269 

should  be  stored  in  a  dark,  dry  place  and  protected  from  heat.  If 
left  in  the  field  for  a  time  the  piles  should  be  covered  with  boards, 
straw  or  canvas. 

Varieties. — As  with  other  vegetables,  California  has  tried  many 
kinds  of  potatoes  and  grows  very  few  on  a  commercial  scale.  The 
first  notable  varieties  were  brought  from  Chili  and  Peru  in  very 
early  days,  and  are  still  grown  to  some  extent,  though  the  main 
crop  is  now  made  of  newer  kinds  because  in  some  localities  the 
old  varieties  ran  out  and  showed  great  susceptibility  to  blight. 

The  blight,  which  was  some  years  ago  a  serious  menace  to 
potato  growing,  has  been  largely  circumvented  by  the  introduction 
of  new  varieties  which  were  thrifty  while  the  old  varieties  on  ad- 
jacent ground  perished.  For  this  reason  new  varieties  should  be 
tested  in  all  localities. 

The  potato  which  constitutes  most  of  the  market  crop  is  the 
Burbank  and  some  variations  of  it  are  locally  popular.  For  mid- 
season  and  late  potatoes  nothing  compares  with  the  Burbank.  For 
early  potatoes  the  old  Early  Rose  still  prevails  widely,  though 
others  are  encroaching  upon  it.  Triumph  is  a  little  earlier  and  is 
gaining  ground.  Early  White  Rose,  Early  Clark  and  Early  Ohio 
are  chiefly  popular  in  southern  California.  American  Wonder,  and 
Snowflake  and  Pearl  are  advancing  as  shipping  varieties  and  Peer- 
less still  retains  favor  in  some  localities. 

Although  there  are  local  adaptations  of  different  varieties,  the 
character  of  the  potato  depends  more  upon  local  conditions  of  soil 
and  climate  than  upon  the  variety,  and  the  same  variety  from  dif- 
ferent localities  commands  widely  different  prices  in  the  market. 

SWEET   POTATOES. 

The  sweet  potato  is  grown  in  nearly  all  parts  of  California 
where  rich,  sandy  loam,  suitably  moist,  can  be  found.  Adequate 
heat  is  essential  to  quality  and  the  upper  coast  region  has  localities 
which  are  deficient  in  this  respect,  but  protection  from  coast  in- 
fluences renders  the  product  satisfactory,  even  though  distance 
from  the  ocean  be  not  great.  As  a  rule,  however,  the  crop  in  the 
upper  half  of  the  state  is  grown  in  the  interior  valleys,  while  at 
the  south,  both  the  coast  slopes  and  the  interior  valleys  yield  a  fine 
product.  Where  the  soil  is  rich,  warm,  and  free  and  the  moisture 
sufficient,  the  sweet  potato  attains  immense  size  and  rightly  ranks 
among  the  great  things  of  California. 


270 


CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 


SWEET   POTATO    PLANTS  271 

The  sweet  potato  is  a  strictly  tender  plant  and  a  heat-lover  as 
well,  consequently  there  is  no  winter  planting,  though  in  drier  parts 
of  the  state,  free  from  frost,  there  may  be  fall  plantings  which  carry 
their  crop  well  into  the  winter  and  for  more  than  half  the  year 
fresh  potatoes  may  be  taken  from  the  ground,  and  by  proper  stor- 
ing the  vegetable  may  be  enjoyed  throughout  the  year. 

Preparation  of  the  Ground. — Planting  is  done  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  frost-free  period  and  the  date  depends  upon  the  locality. 
Usually  it  comes  about  the  first  of  May,  but  preparation  of  the 
ground  should  begin  earlier  to  secure  good  culture  and  moisture 
retention  as  described  for  other  root  crops.  In  regions  of  good 
rainfall  moisture  enough  can  thus  be  retained  to  make  the  crop  or 
at  least  start  it  well.  On  dry  plains  it  may  be  necessary  to  thor- 
oughly irrigate  in  the  spring  before  the  deep  plowing  with  which 
the  planting  is  to  be  made.  On  loose,  lowland  soils  or  in  irrigated 
regions  there  is  often  abundant  moisture  within  reach  of  the  plant 
to  serve  its  purposes  and  then  sweet  potatoes  may  follow  a  hay  or 
grain  crop  just  as  in  the  practice  with  common  potatoes.  Lands 
which  receive  enough  moisture  from  below  and  yet  are  not  wet 
and  cold,  produce  the  crop  with  least  labor  and  expense,  though 
it  is  quite  feasible  to  proceed  with  direct  irrigation  both  for  plant- 
ing and  after  growth.  The  sweet  potato  sends  its  roots  to  great 
distances  to  find  moisture. 

Growing  the  Plants. — The  sweet  potato  grows  readily  by  cut- 
tings from  the  growing  vine  planted  out  directly  in  the  field  if  the 
ground  is  moist  and  warm.  This  method  is  followed  to  rapidly 
multiply  a  rare  variety.  The  usual  method  is  to  plant  the  crop  by 
using  sprouts  from  potatoes  on  which  growth  is  quickly  started 
with  bottom  heat.  Any  of  the  hot-bed  appliances  described  in  the 
chapter  on  propagation  may  be  used  for  this  purpose  on  a  small 
scale,  but  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  state  it  can  be  done  on  a  large 
scale  for  field  planting  without  expense  of  glass  or  cloth  covering. 
If,  however;  the  hot-bed  is  used,  care  must  be  taken  against  over- 
heating. 

To  grow  plants  in  the  open  air  dig  a  trench  four  or  five  feet 
wide  and  about  two  feet  deep;  the  length  according  to  the  number 
of  plants  desired.  The  trench  should  be  dug  in  light,  well-drained 
soil,  in  a  place  protected  from  cold  winds.  Put  in  fresh  horse 
manure  and  tramp  down  until  about  a  foot  and  a  half  of  thickness 
is  secured.  Wet  it  well,  but  not  enough  to  drain,  and  immediately 


272  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES 

cover  with  three  or  four  inches  of  moist  soil.  Upon  this  place  the 
sweet  potatoes  just  as  close  as  they  can  be  put  down  without  touch- 
ing each  other.  When  done,  sift  in  fine  sand  between  the  potatoes 
and  finally  cover  with  three  inches  of  very  sandy  loam,  or  even  with 
sand.  Keep  this  bed  moist  but  not  wet.  Moisture  and  heat  may  be 
retained  by  covering  the  bed  with  two  inches  of  loose  straw  to  be 
removed  as  the  shoots  appear.  The  plants  are  ready  for  use  in 
about  eight  weeks  from  the  bedding  of  the  tubers,  when  they  show 
a  few  green  leaves :  they  can  be  detached  by  pulling  and  will  bring 
their  outfit  of  small  roots  with  them  as  they  are  pulled  out  of  the 
sand.  The  tubers  will  then  send  up  other  shoots  which  can  be 
planted  later. 

Some  prefer  to  uncover  the  potatoes,  beginning  at  one  end  of 
the  bed,  removing  the  shoots  and  replacing  the  covering.  This 
lessens  the  danger  of  breaking  the  shoots.  Others  split  the  potatoes 
lengthwise  and  plant  with  the  cut  side  down  so  that  all  the  shoots 
come  from  the  upper  surface  and  are  thus  less  liable  to  break  in 
pulling. 

Planting. — Most  sweet  potatoes  are  grown  on  ridges  to  secure 
greater  heat  in  the  soil  and  to  facilitate  irrigation,  but  flat  culture 
is  also  practiced  and  in  some  regions  is  decidedly  better.  After 
the  land  is  well  prepared  and  harrowed  down  smooth,  mark  off 
the  rows  three  feet  apart  and  set  the  plants  eighteen  inches  apart  in 
the  row.  When  the  ground  is  thoroughly  warmed  by  the  advance 
of  the  season,  say  in  April  or  May,  take  the  shoots  as  described 
above.  They  must,  of  course,  be  kept  from  drying  out,  the  young 
roots  being  very  tender.  In  taking  them  to  the  field  they  must, 
therefore,  be  kept  in  a  bucket  with  water,  or  in  a  wet  sack,  the 
former  being  the  best.  Plant  out  the  shoots  eighteen  inches  apart 
in  the  rows,  one  in  a  place,  settling  them  down  in  the  soil,  deep 
enough  to  find  permanent  moisture. 

Sometimes  when  the  object  is  to  get  unusually  large  potatoes, 
instead  of  pulling  off  and  setting  out  the  slips,  the  potato  is  lifted 
out  and  with  every  slip  a  small  piece  of  the  potato  is  cut  out  and 
planted  with  the  slip.  This  method  will  bring  the  earliest  potatoes, 
but  the  number  of  sets  are  many  less  than  though  the  potato  be 
allowed  to  remain  in  bed  for  their  continued  production. 

Recently  a  machine  has  come  into  use  which  digs  a  trench  on 
the  top  of  the  ridge  and  drops  water  at  whatever  intervals  are  de- 


STORING    SWEET    POTATOES  273 

sired.  Two  boys  place  the  plants,  holding  them  until  the  machine 
draws  the  dirt  securely  around  them. 

Cultivation. — Cultivation  for  the  purpose  of  weed  killing  and 
surface  stirring  is  continued  until  the  vines  interfere  and  after  that 
the  vines  cover  the  ground  with  a  thick  mat  and  discourage  weed 
growth. 

Harvesting  and  Storage. — Use  of  the  sweet  potatoes  may  be- 
gin when  they  attain  suitable  size,  but  for  keeping  they  must  attain 
a  good  degree  of  maturity. 

Some  find  the  keeping  of  sweet  potatoes  somewhat  difficult. 
Many  pack  the  potatoes  in  dry  sand  and  keep  them  in  the  house. 
This  is  expensive  and  is  not  a  sure  way.  Many  will  rot  and  some- 
times only  one-third  of  them  will  keep  till  spring.  Storage  in  the 
open  air  with  due  protection  against  too  great  temperature  changes 
and  moisture  is  better.  This  method  has  been  approved  in  Fresno 
county : 

Take  stout  stakes,  say  five  to  six  feet  long,  and  drive  them  into  the 
ground  in  a  row  and  five  feet  apart,  in  some  dry  place  that  is  not  sheltered 
by  trees.  Dig  the  potatoes  and  throw  them  up  around  the  stakes  to  the 
height  of  four  feet.  For  a  large  field  a  great  many  such  rows  may  be  neces- 
sary ;  for  a  small  patch  perhaps  one  single  stake  will  suffice.  When  all  dug, 
put  four  inches  of  straw  as  covering.  After  a  week  or  ten  days,  according 
to  the  weather,  the  potatoes  will  have  undergone  a  sweating  process.  They 
first  cover  themselves  with  moisture,  as  if  they  had  been  dipped  in  water. 
This  moisture  gradually  begins  to  disappear,  and  as  soon  as  it  does  so  it  is 
time  to  throw  off  the  straw.  This  should  be  done  when  the  wind  is  blow- 
ing; the  potato  hills  should  be  left  open  for  three  or  four  hours,  or  until 
the  potatoes  appear  entirely  dry.  If  the  straw  covering  is  taken  off  in  the 
morning,  the  potatoes  will  be  dry  at  noon.  Then  cover  them  again  with 
three  or  four  inches  of  fresh,  dry  straw,  and  on  the  top  of  the  straw  put 
three  or  four  inches  of  soil  to  keep  out  the  cold.  On  the  top  of  this  must 
be  placed  a  roof,  which  is  easily  made  of  shakes,  nailed  to  strips  of  two 
by  three  and  made  in  the  shape  of  panels,  to  allow  of  easy  handling  and  of 
repeated  use  year  after  year.  Potatoes  kept  in  this  way  will  preserve  per- 
fectly until  next  spring.  Very  few,  if  any,  will  be  found  decayed. 

Varieties. — Probably  all  the  improved  varieties  have  been  in- 
troduced in  California.  The  California  demand  is  for  a  variety 
which  is  rather  dry  and  mealy  when  cooked,  although  the  softer, 
sweeter  sorts  have  some  advocates.  The  most  common  variety  is 
called  the  Californian  but  it  is  a  Chinese  sort  introduced  in  early 
days.  The  Southern  Queen  and  the  Nansemonds  are  also  popular, 
and  the  Jersey  Red  is  grown  to  some  extent  in  southern  California. 


CHAPTER    XXIX. 

RADISHES. 

THE  RADISH. — Raphanus  sativus. 

French,    radis;    German,    radies;    Dutch,    radijs;    Danish,    haverdoedike ; 
Italian,  ravanello;  Spanish,  rabanito ;  Portuguese,  rabao. 

HORSE-RADISH. — Cochlearia  Armor acia. 

French,  raifort  sauvage;  German,  meerettig;  Dutch,  peperwortel;  Danish, 
peberrod;  Italian,  rafano;  Spanish,  taramago;  Portuguese,  rabao  de  cavalho. 

The  radish  is  a  relish  which  can  be  had  continuously  through- 
out the  year  in  most  parts  of  California,  if  proper  soil  and  moisture 
conditions  can  be  arranged.  It  is  almost  a  hopeless  task  to  under- 
take to  secure  a  crisp,  delicately  flavored  radish  unless  heat  and 
moisture  are  favorable  to  quick  growth  of  the  plant.  It  takes  some 
gardening  skill  therefore  to  produce  good  radishes  in  winter  locali- 
ties with  sharp  frosts  and  heavy  rainfall,  while  in  regions  of  light 
frost  and  light  rainfall,  winter  heat  is  usually  adequate  to  satis- 
factory growth. 

The  best  soil  for  radishes  is  a  rich,  sandy  loam,  though  any 
good  garden  soil  will  -grow  them  if  a  small  piece  is  improved  for 
the  purpose  as  described  on  page  48. 

Preparation  of  the  soil  is  essentially  the  same  as  that  already 
described  for  other  root-crops,  and  sowing,  as  already  intimated, 
can  be  done  whenever  the  soil  is  in  good  condition,  if  irrigation  is 
available  for  use  in  the  dry  season,  and  there  is  free  drainage  in 
the  winter.  Temperature  is,  however,  of  more  moment  to  the  radish 
than  to  some  other  hardy  garden  plants,  and  during  the  colder 
months,  the  raised  bed,  as  described  on  page  86,  located  on  the 
sunny  side  of  a  wind-break,  will  afford  heat  enough  usually.  In 
other  places  where  cold  and  rain  are  greater  the  "warm  heap" 
described  on  page  132  may  be  used.  By  thus  adapting  the  method 
to  local  conditions  winter  growth  can  be  had  anywhere  in  the  valley 
and  foothill  regions  of  the  state.  Summer  growth  is  mainly  a 
question  of  soil-moisture  which  can  be  regulated  by  irrigation  and 
cultivation. 

(274) 


GROWING    RADISHES  275 

As  the  radish  is  naturally  of  quick  growth  and  as  crispness 
and  mild  flavor  are  largely  conditioned  on  pushing  it  to  the  utmost 
of  its  speed,  it  can  be  grown  to  advantage  as  a  catch  crop  here  and 
there  in  the  garden  on  ground  that  is  temporarily  out  of  use  for  a 
few  weeks,  or  between  the  rows  of  more  slowly  growing  vegetables. 
The  gardener  should  always  be  ready  to  scatter  good  radish  seed 
when  he  has  a  little  stretch  of  light,  rich,  moist  soil  at  command. 
A  little  attention  and  ingenuity  will  in  this  way  secure  a  constant 
supply. 

Varieties. — Popular  favor  runs  in  the  direction  of  the  turnip- 
shaped  varieties,  of  which  there  are  very  many.  The  long  radishes 
are,  however,  often  chosen  for  home  use.  The  Early  Scarlet  Turnip 
is  most  largely  grown  and  there  are  several  strains  of  it  varying 
in  earliness  and  color.  The  French  Breakfast,  oval,  tipped  with 
white,  stands  next  to  the  Scarlet  Turnip  sorts.  The  Italian  market 
gardeners  grow  what  is  known  as  the  '"Half-Long,"  a  variety  of 
Rose  Olive-Shaped  and  the  Black  Spanish,  very  desirable  for  winter 
growth.  The  White  Turnip,  similar  to  Scarlet  Turnip  except  in 
color,  is  popular  with  German  gardeners,  and  the  Chartier  has  some 
popularity  as  a  large  scarlet  variety,  shading  to  pink  and  thence  to 
white  at  the  root-tip.  The  Crimson  Giant  is  very  large  and  gener- 
ally solid  and  crisp.  The  Mammoth  Chinese  distances  all  others  for 
size.  It  is  pure  white,  mild-flavored  and  crisp,  even  though  it  may 
grow  eighteen  inches  in  length  and  three  inches  in  diameter  in  six 
weeks,  with  interior  heat  on  light  soil,  abundantly  moist. 

HORSE-RADISH. 

Horse-radish  is  a  popular  relish  in  California  towns  and  is 
bottled  on  quite  a  large  scale.  The  plant  is  easily  grown  and  should 
be  found  in  every  farm  garden.  A  start  is  most  conveniently  made 
by  planting  root  sets.  Mr.  Ira  W.  Adams  advises  planting  the 
roots  or  sets  in  rows  two  feet  apart  with  the  sets  one  foot  apart  in 
the  rows,  and  three  or  four  inches  under  the  surface.  On  rich, 
moist  soil,  with  the  best  of  cultivation,  one  can  raise  roots  that  will 
weigh  from  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  a  pound.  When  the  roots 
are  dug  in  winter  for  use,  break  off  all  the  small  rootlets  from  one- 
quarter  to  one-half  inch  in  diameter,  cut  into  pieces  from  three  to 
five  inches  long,  leaving  the  top  end  square,  and  the  bottom  end 


276  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES 

slanting,  so  there  will  be  no  mistake  in  planting  them  upside  down. 
Tie  in  small  bunches  and  put  into  moist  sand  that  has  perfect  drain- 
age and  is  exposed  to  the  weather.  In  very  cold,  long,  heavy  rains 
it  is  well  to  cover  with  shakes,  or  short  pieces  of  boards.  A  cool 
cellar  is  a  good  place  to  store  them,  but  be  careful  the  sand  is  never 
allowed  to  get  dry,  as  the  sets  will  not  root  nicely  without  continual 
moisture.  Early  in  the  spring  there  will  be  nicely  rooted  sets  ready 
for  transplanting  as  before  described. 


CHAPTER    XXX. 
RHUBARB. 

RHUBARB  OR  PIE  PLANT. — Rheum  sp. 

French,  rhubarbe;   German  and    Danish,    rhabarber ;    Dutch,    rabarber; 
Italian,  rabarbaro ;  Spanish  and  Portuguese,  ruibarbo. 

Rhubarb  attains  grand  size  and  quality  in  California  if  due 
attention  is  paid  to  the  requirements  of  the  plant,  and  it  should 
have  a  place  in  every  house  garden.  It  enjoys  very  rich  soil  and 
will  thrive  on  a  great  variety  of  soils,  even  from  heavy  clay  to 
light  peat,  providing  ample  moisture  is  afforded  it.  On  heavy, 
retentive  soils  it  must  have  good  cultivation  or  thick  mulching  to 
prevent  loss  of  moisture  and  surface  baking;  on  light,  coarse  soils 
either  ample  irrigation  or  natural  sub-irrigation  will  keep  the  plant 
thrifty  and  vigorous.  It  does  not  enjoy  high  heat  and  drought,  and 
reaches  its  best  estate  and  is  commercially  produced  in  the  coast 
valleys  or  on  the  river  bottom  lands  of  the  interior,  but  it  can  be 
very  satisfactorily  grown  for  home  use  on  interior  plains  and  mesas 
providing  constant  moisture  is  supplied ;  partial  shade  is  also  grate- 
ful to  its  foliage  in  the  interior,  but  is  not  necesasry  on  the  coast. 
Since  the  wide  introduction  of  winter  growing  rhubarb,  which 
defies  the  frost  and  enjoys  the  ample  moisture  of  the  rainy  season, 
the  range  of  the  plant  has  vastly  increased  in  California  and  its 
commercial  importance  has  greatly  advanced. 

Culture. — Rhubarb  is  grown  from  seed  or  propagated  by  di- 
vision of  the  roots:  the  latter  insures  reproduction  of  the  identical 
characters  of  the  parent,  while  from  seed  there  is  always  a  chance 
of  variation. 

Rhubarb  plants  may  be  grown  from  seed  by  preparing  the 
ground  in  the  same  way  already  described  for  asparagus,  and  the 
same  care  of  the  seedling  as  there  indicated  will  bring  good,  strong 
rhubarb  roots  for  planting  out  as  yearlings.  Mr.  Ira  W.  Adams 
gives  the  following  special  advice  for  rhubarb  seedlings : 

Prepare  the  bed  the  same  as  for  asparagus.     Sow  the  seed  in  rows  one 
foot  apart,  and  one  inch  apart  in  the  row  in  a  little  furrow  one  inch  deep ; 

(277) 


278  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

tramp  down  lightly  with  the  back  of  a  steel  rake  and  cover  with  the  finest 
of  soil,  as  the  seeds  are  small  and  light.  When  the  plants  are  an  inch  or 
two  high,  they  can  be  transplanted  into  rows  twelve  inches  apart,  and  four 
inches  between  the  plants.  By  fall  they  will  be  fine,  strong  plants,  and  can 
be  planted  out  the  next  spring  in  permanent  rows. 

Root  sets  are  made  by  dividing  the  roots  of  the  older  plants  so 
that  each  piece  shall  have  a  bud  or  eye.  The  most  vigorous  plants, 
producing  the  largest  leaves  and  thickest  leaf-stems,  should  be 
selected  for  this  purpose. 

Planting. — Before  planting  either  in  field  or  garden  the  soil 
should  be  heavily  manured  and  deeply  turned  in  the  fall  so  as  to 
get  the  full  benefit  of  the  winter  rains.  Transplanting  the  old  sum- 
mer varieties  should  be  done  when  the  plant  is  dormant,  the  soil  in 
good  working  condition  and  warmth  enough  for  growth  antici- 
pated. The  date  will  of  course  vary  in  different  localities,  but  Feb- 
ruary will  usually  be  satisfactory  for  the  summer  growers.  The 
soil  must  not  be  too  wet  at  transplanting  or  the  roots  may  rot ;  good 
warmth  and  moisture  are  favorable.  The  introduction  of  winter- 
growing  varieties  has  modified  transplanting  practice.  They  are 
practically  evergreen  and  active  except  for  a  short  dormancy  in  the 
late  summer,  and,  though  capable  of  transplanting  by  cutting  back 
the  leaves  all  through  the  rainy  season,  are  usually  moved  to  best 
advantage  from  April  to  June,  the  latter  period  being  available  on 
irrigated  land. 

There  are  different  ways  of  planting  out,  each  with  its  own 
advocates.  Roots  set  four  feet  apart  each  way  give  good  oppor- 
tunity for  cultivation  both  ways ;  but  some  give  more  room  by  laying 
off  in  six  feet  rows  with  the  plants  four  feet  apart  in  the  row. 
Others  plant  in  the  garden,  placing  the  plants  two  feet  apart,  if 
only  one  row  is  planted,  and  in  four  feet  rows  with  the  plants  three 
feet  apart  if  there  are  to  be  several  rows.  On  good,  strong  deep 
soils,  it  is  well  to  give  plenty  of  room,  for  large  growth  of  leaves 
is  desired  to  impart  vigor  to  the  roots.  Distance  depends  somewhat 
upon  the  variety,  but  nearly  all  growers  aim  at  very  large  leaf 
stems,  and  these  require  ample  space. 

Treatment. — The  plants  should  be  allowed  to  retain  all  their 
leaves  the  first  year  after  planting  out,  and  there  must  be  abundant 
moisture  for  summer  growth  if  there  is  to  be  a  heavy  crop  the 
second  year.  Frequent  summer  cultivation  is  desirable  unless 
mulching  is  employed,  and  if  it  is  the  grower  must  be  sure  that  his 
mulching  is  heavy  enough  to  retain  moisture.  It  is  probably  better 


VARIETIES    OF    RHUBARB  279 

to  trust  to  cultivation  and  irrigation  in  most  situations.  With  the 
fall  rains  the  surface  should  be  liberally  dressed  with  manure  and 
covered  in  as  deeply  as  possible  without  injury  to  the  roots.  Shal- 
low cultivation  should  follow  before  the  weeds  advance  too  far,  to 
be  repeated  as  necessary  to  keep  the  field  clean. 

Winter  growing  varieties,  planted  out  in  the  spring  and  sum- 
mer, irrigated,  establish  themselves  so  strongly  the  first  summer  that 
some  pulling  can  be  done  upon  them  the  following  winter.  Even 
without  irrigation,  spring  set  plants  will  receive  a  new  impulse  with 
the  first  rain,  grow  riotously  with  the  autumn  heat  and  give  large 
leaf  stems  by  the  holidays  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  state. 

Manuring  and  cultivation  should  be  followed  year  after  year 
to  keep  the  soil  rich  and  in  good  tilth.  Some  soils  are,  however, 
so  rich  naturally  that  such  liberal  manuring  may  not  be  necessary. 
The  plant  should  not  be  too  fully  stripped  of  its  leaves  nor  should 
the  pulling  be  continued  too  late  in  the  summer.  The  following 
crop  depends  upon  adequate  leaf  action — consequently  the  plant 
must  have  foliage  and  summer  moisture  to  maintain  it. 

Varieties. — The  Monarch  is  largely  grown.  It  has  a  very  wide, 
flat  stem.  The  Victoria  has  red,  long  stems,  rather  sharp  acid,  but 
a  very  productive  sort  and  popular.  Linnaeus  is  early,  large,  thick 
stems,  of  excellent  flavor  and  less  acid. 

The  Crimson  Winter,  introduced  from  Australia  by  Luther 
Burbank  about  1895,  and  sold  by  him  to  the  trade  in  1900,  has 
revolutionized  rhubarb  growing  in  California  by  completely  re- 
versing the  market  season.  This  variety  and  its  improvements  by 
Mr.  Burbank  and  by  others  who  have  practiced  selection  since  he 
sold  it  out,  notably  by  J.  B.  Wagner,  of  Pasadena,  has  multiplied 
the  rhubarb  acreage  of  the  state  and  vastly  increased  the  servicea- 
bility and  commercial  suitability  of  the  plant.  It  has  precluded 
forcing  in  California  and  promises  to  render  forcing  unprofitable 
even  in  the  wintry  parts  of  the  country  because  of  the  large  sup- 
plies of  open  air  rhubarb  which  are  available  for  shipment  from  this 
state  at  all  times  of  the  year  when  the  summer  varieties  grown  in 
wintry  climates  are  unproductive. 


CHAPTER   XXXI. 

SPINACH. 

COMMON  SPINACH. — Spinacia  olcracea  and  spinosa. 
French,    epinard;     German,    spinat;    Dutch,    spinazie;     Danish,     spinat, 
Italian,  spinaccio;  Spanish,  espinaca;  Portuguese  espinafre. 

NEW  ZEALAND  SPINACH. — Tetragonia  expansa,. 

Spinach  is  an  all-the-year  plant  in  California,  and  the  house- 
gardener  need  never  fail  to  have  tender  foliage  for  boiling  if  he 
arranges  for  successive  sowings  and  knows  the  varieties  and  species 
which  befit  the  changing  seasons,  for  he  can  choose  for  fall  sowing 
that  which  is  perfectly  hardy  and  thrifty  in  the  California  winter, 
and  for  spring  sowing  that  which  will  furnish  succulent  pluckings 
even  through  the  heat  and  drought  of  the  interior  summer.  But 
though  this  is  so,  it  is  chiefly  as  affording  winter  greens  that  spinach 
is  grown  for  the  market.  The  summer  furnishes  so  large  a  variety 
of  table  vegetables  that  it  is  chiefly  in  winter  that  the  housewife 
turns  her  attention  to  pot-herbs. 

Culture. — As  we  are  dealing  with  two  entirely  distinct  genera 
of  plants  under  the  name  "spinach,"  and  as  they  have  very  little  in 
common  except  their  similar  culinary  use,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
write  in  specific  terms  of  their  culture. 

The  varieties  of  common  spinach  (spinacia)  dislike  heat  and 
drought  and  enjoy  moist,  rich  soil  and  moderate  temperature. 
These  conditions  are  afforded  by  all  California  gardens  in  the  win- 
ter, providing  the  grower  will  heed  the  suggestions  for  ridge- 
culture,  etc.,  given  in  previous  chapters,  for  escaping  surplus  water 
and  securing  suitable  growing-temperature  in  the  winter  garden. 
With  these  provisions  it  is  easy  to  secure  winter  spinach  by  follow- 
ing the  suggestions  given  for  the  winter  growth  of  lettuce,  peas 
or  other  hardy  vegetables.  What  has  been  said  of  fall  sowing  of 
these,  applies  also  to  spinach.  The  plant  makes  best  growth  from 
seed  sown  in  place,  and  if  the  seed  is  good  it  may  be  thinly  sown, 
for  the  plants  should  not  be  allowed  to  crowd  each  other.  They 

(280) 


NEW    ZEALAND    SPINACH  281 

should  have  from  six  to  nine  inches  space  in  the  row  and  should  be 
kept  free  from,  encroachment  of  weeds.  To  keep  the  soil  from 
packing  by  rains,  and  to  push  the  plants  as  well,  a  top  dressing  of 
fine  manure  may  be  placed  to  be  leached  out  by  the  rains.  In  a 
garden  with  permanent  walks,  spinach  may  be  sown  as  a  border 
plant,  which  brings  it  within  easy  reach  for  the  frequent  plucking 
of  leaves.  The  plants  will  endure  this,  and  by  means  of  new  growth 
on  old  plants  and  successive  sowings,  it  is  feasible,  as  above  stated, 
to  have  spinach  always  ready.  The  variety  chiefly  used  is  the 
"Large  Prickly,"  although  the  "Long  Standing"  is  also  esteemed 
because  of  its  long  leaf  growth  before  sending  up  seed  stems.  The 
Round  of  Summer  is  also  considerably  used. 

For  greens  in  the  hot  and  dry  summer  and  dry  autumn,  the 
New  Zealand  spinach  is  making  a  fine  record  in  California.  It  was 
introduced  and  widely  distributed  by  the  State  University,  and  has 
been  handled  for  years  by  the  California  seedsmen  on  the  basis  of 
its  local  suitability.  Even  in  interior  situations  it  grows  on  dry 
ground  all  summer,  and  maintains  rich  green  color  until  frost  kills 
the  top  growth.  The  stems  and  foliage  are  very  sensitive  to  frost, 
but  the  root  is  more  hardy  and  gives  new  growth  and  is  useful  in 
the  spring.  The  plant  sends  out  shoots  of  considerable  length 
which  may  be  cut  off  for  cooking.  Its  tenderness  and  flavor  are 
vouched  for  by  many  growers.  Early  summer  cutting  may  be  had 
by  starting  plants  with  bottom  heat  and  planting  out  like  egg  plants, 
but  in  our  long  summer,  sowing  in  the  spring  after  frost  danger  is 
over,  gives  abundant  foliage  in  late  summer  and  autumn. 


CHAPTER    XXXII. 

SQUASHES. 

MAMMOTH  SQUASHES  OR  PUMPKINS. — Cucurbit  a  maxima. 
French   potirons ;    German,    melonen-kurbiss ;    Danish,    centner-groeskar  ; 
Italian,  zucca;  Spanish,  calabaza  totanera. 

MARROWS  AND  SCOLLOPS. — Cucurbita  pepo. 
The  species  moschata  also  contributes  same  horticultural  varieties. 

The  California-grown  squashes  are  all  noted  for  prodigious 
size  and  the  acre-product  is  also  immense.  Squashes  have  been 
used  from  the  early  days  as  exponents  of  size  in  California  vege- 
tables, at  all  distant  and  local  exhibitions,  and  the  statistics  thereof 
would  fill  a  volume.  Weights  of  single  specimens  have  been  at- 
tained in  excess  of  three  hundred  pounds,  and  field  crops  above 
thirty  tons  to  the  acre.  To  avoid  exaggeration  and  at  the  same 
time  present  the  truth  about  the  California  squash  in  a  picturesque 
manner,  a  single  record  is  presented  from  the  writer's  collection  of 
cucurbitous  literature.  Philander  Kellogg,  of  Goleta,  Santa  Bar- 
bara county,  who  is  personally  known  to  the  writer  as  a  man  of 
truth  and  probity,  furnishes  this  statement: 

I  planted  my  squashes  in  May,  and  harvested  them  in  October.  Finding 
chat  they  were  unusually  large,  I  weighed  10  of  the  largest  and  found  tnat 
their  aggregate  weight  was  one  ton  and  50  odd  pounds,  the  largest  one 
weighing  225  pounds.  This  squash  was  exhibited  at  the  county  fair  and 
received  the  first  prize.  On  the  15th  of  November,  which  was  my  boy's  16th 
birthday,  I  cut  open  one  of  the  other  squashes,  that  weighed  210  pounds, 
and  took  out  the  seeds ;  my  boy  then  got  into  it  and  I  put  the  piece  together 
and  completely  closed  him  in,  the  parts  coming  tight  together.  I  then  per- 
suaded my  eighteen-year-old  daughter  to  get  into  it  and  I  closed  her  in, 
in  the  same  manner.  My  daughter's  weight  was  110  pounds.  I  then  put 
two  seven-year-old  boys  in  at  once.  I  then  put  my  three  little  girls  in  at 
once;  they  were  aged  respectively  six,  four  and  two  years,  their  united 
weight  being  116  pounds.  I  placed  the  largest  child  in  the  bottom  and  the 
little  one  on  the  top  and  then  put  on  the  lid;  the  squash  was  cut  so  that  the 
top  could  be  easily  put  on  or  removed.  The  squash  was  three  feet  four  or 
five  inches  in  length. 

The  growth  and  productiveness  of  the  plant  in  specially  favor- 
able places  are  proportional  to  the  size  of  the  fruit;  vine  growth  of 
(282) 


SQUASH    CULTURE  283 

fifty  feet  and  from  thirty  to  forty  two  good  sized  fruits  to  the  single 
vine  are  recorded — a  good  wagon  load  to  the  vine. 

Localities  and  Soils. — The  greatest  specimens  and  the  heaviest 
crops  are  produced  on  rich,  retentive  loams.  These  are  rather 
heavy  soils  and  are  usually  the  lowlands  of  either  coast  or  interior 
valleys.  But  great  squashes  are  not  confined  to  such  soils.  Lighter 
soils,  if  abundantly  rich  and  adequately  moist,  are  also  very  satis- 
factory, and  in  fact  any  good  soil  deeply  plowed  and  properly  culti- 
vated, until  the  vines  cover  the  ground,  may  be  expected  to  give 
good  return.  For  this  reason  the  dairy  farmer  who  has  suitable 
land,  grows  squash  in  large  quantity  for  fall  and  early  winter 
feeding;  the  mixed  farmer  enters  squash  as  a  stated  item  in  his  list 
of  crops,  and  the  fruit  farmer  is  quite  apt  to  grow  squash  between 
the  trees  in  his  young  orchard,  to  contribute  to  his  family  milk 
supply. 

The  squash  is  somewhat  exacting  in  its  moisture  supply,  and 
does  not  respond  well  on  light,  dry  soils  unless  irrigated.  With 
enough  moisture  the  plant  endures  the  highest  interior  heat  and 
records  large  production.  Excessive  irrigation  is,  however,  to  be 
avoided,  for  it  is  apt  to  diminish  the  fruiting. 

Culture. — The  squash  plant  is  very  tender:  it  is  destroyed  by 
frost,  and  the  seed  is  apt  to  fail  in  cold  ground.  The  proper  prac- 
tice is  to  have  the  soil  previously  well  cultivated,  but  to  delay  plant- 
ing seed  or  transplanting  seedlings  from  the  covered  bed  until  the 
time  is  frost-free  and  the  soil  warm.  The  culture  of  the  squash  is 
therefore  like  that  already  prescribed  for  the  cucumber  and  for 
melons,  in  the  chapters  devoted  to  those  subjects,  to  which  the 
reader  is  referred.  The  bush  varieties  of  squashes  follow  the 
cucumber  in  distances,  and  the  running  varieties  follow  watermelon 
distances.  There  is,  however,  some  difference  in  the  practice  of 
growers  of  the  running  varieties :  some  advocate  rather  close  plant- 
ing, as  six  by  six  or  eight  by  eight  feet  in  squares,  and  others  plant 
at  wider  distances,  even  to  setting  two  plants  in  a  place  at  intervals 
of  fourteen  feet  apart.  It  is  impossible  to  state  any  specific  dis- 
tance at  best :  it  is  to  be  determined  locally  according  to  the  growth 
which  the  local  soil  and  climate  produce.  One  is  apt  to  err  on  the 
side  of  crowding  than  otherwise. 

Care  must  be  had  not  to  cover  the  seed  too  deeply.  It  must 
be  firmly  placed  in  moist  soil  and  covered  enough  to  avoid  quick 
drying.  The  suggestions  in  the  chapter  on  propagation  are  as 


284 


CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 


SQUASH    VARIETIES  285 

definite  as  they  can  be  made,  according  to  the  character  of  the  soils 
employed. 

Cultivation  must  be  begun  as  soon  as  possible  after  planting, 
to  save  moisture  from  loss  either  by  weeds  or  evaporation,  and 
must  be  frequent  for  the  same  reason.  Nothing  looks  more  dis- 
tressful than  squash  vines  perishing  on  baked  clay  or  dry  sandy 
soil  which,  if  properly  cultivated  from  the  start,  would  have  sus- 
tained a  splendid  growth. 

Garden  Culture. — In  addition  to  injunctions  for  thorough 
working  of  the  soil  and  adequate  irrigation,  there  is  the  opportunity 
in  garden  culture  to  produce  grand  results  by  special  fertilization. 
Careful  use  of  the  compost  or  liquid  manure  described  in  the  chap- 
ter on  fertilization,  produces  marvelous  results. 

Varieties. — We  have  in  California  probably  all  the  kinds  of 
squash  known  to  horticulture.  Some  amateurs  take  special  interest 
in  such  collections,  and  scores  of  varieties  representing  the  whole 
gourd  family  have  been  shown  in  state  fair  exhibits.  And  yet  the 
bulk  of  the  product  is  made  of  very  few  varieties. 

Of  the  bush  forms  which  are  relied  upon  for  summer  squash, 
the  scollops  comprise  most  of  the  crop ;  both  the  early  white  and 
yellow  being  grown — the  former  preferred.  The  yellow  crook- 
neck  is  also  grown  to  some  extent.  The  Italian  and  Boston  mar- 
rows have  a  few  warm  advocates. 

Of  the  winter  squash  for  table  use,  the  Hubbard  and  the  Red 
or  Golden  Hubbard,  which  is  a  little  earlier,  are  chiefly  grown. 
The  field  squash  crop  is  made  of  several  varieties.  The  California 
Marrowfat,  a  splendid,  orange-colored  squash,  takes  the  lead,  while 
associated  with  it  in  the  same  field  may  be  found  the  Mammoth 
Chile,  which  is  usually  the  sort,  more  or  less  pure,  which  yields 
the  largest  specimens.  There  is  also  a  very  large  winter  crook- 
neck,  very  prolific  and  rather  more  hardy  in  trying  situations,  but 
not  so  good  in  keeping  quality  as  the  preceding.  Here  and  there 
may  be  found  a  field  of  the  old-fashioned  New  England  pumpkin, 
and  fair  exhibits  usually  bring  to  light  both  the  Etampes  and  Tours 
pumpkins,  but  the  large  orange  and  light  olive  fruits  are  named 
squashes  in  the  California  vernacular,  and  are  preferred.  There  is 
much  confusion  both  in  the  terms  "squash"  and  "pumpkin,"  and 
there  are  many  chance  hybrids  which  await  analysis  by  some  cucur- 
bitous  specialist. 


CHAPTER    XXXIII. 

THE  TOMATO. 

TOMATO  OR  LOVE  APPLE. — Lycopcrsicum  esculentum. 
French,    German,    Spanish,    and    Portuguese,    tomate ;    Dutch,    tomaat , 
Italian,  porno  d'oro. 

The  tomato  is  one  of  the  most  popular,  prolific,  and  profitable 
of  California  vegetables.  It  is  grown  everywhere  during  the  local 
occurrences  of  the  frost-free  period,  and  in  our  thermal  situations 
the  fruit  can  be  gathered  all  the  year.  The  earliest  fruit  in  our 
local  markets  and  the  earliest  shipments  to  the  east  are  gathered 
from  vines  which  have  continued  growth  from  the  previous  sum- 
mer and  autumn,  and,  encountering  no  killing  frost,  are  able  to 
fruit  through  the  winter  months.  Favorable  places  in  the  Cahuenga 
valley,  near  Los  Angeles,  are  best  known  for  this  winter  crop, 
though  it  can  be  expected  in  similarly  protected  places  in  several 
of  the  southern  coast  counties.  The  winter-grown  fruit  is,  of 
course,  inferior  to  the  summer  and  fall  crop,  though  it  is  excellent 
enough  to  command  high  prices  for  table  use  until  the  earliest 
yield  from  spring  plantings  is  to  be  had.  When  this  new  crop 
comes  in,  the  fruit  from  the  hold-over  plants  becomes  cheaper,  but 
is  still  marketed  until  the  new  crop  becomes  abundant.  In  this 
way  one  year's  plants  in  southern  thermal  situations  lap  over  upon 
the  yield  of  the  following  year  in  the  earliest  interior  sections  at 
the  north,  and  the  tomato  supply  from  open  air  plants  is  continuous 
throughout  the  year,  though  the  supply  regions  are  hundreds  of 
miles  distant  from  each  other.  The  fact  that  the  north  produces 
earlier  spring  tomatoes  from  new  plants  than  the  south  is  difficult 
for  distant  students  to  realize.  It  is  conditioned  upon  ocean  in- 
fluences and  local  topography,  which  at  the  south  prevent  frosts 
which  winter-kill  the  old  plants  at  the  north,  arid  at  the  same  time 
postpone  spring  heat  at  the  south,  which  is  attained  earlier  in  shel- 
tered places  in  the  interior  at  the  north  from  which  ocean  influences 
are  excluded.  There  are  places  in  the  interior  at  the  south,  east 
(286) 


Tomato  Fine     in  February  in  Sierra  Foothills 


288  CALIFORNIA   VEGETABLES 

of  the  high  mountain  range,  which  should  be  earlier  than  either 
the  southern  coast  or  the  northern  interior.  Still,  in  the  all-the-year 
demand  for  the  tomato,  it  is  necessary  to  bring  some  fruit  from 
Mexico  and  from  the  forcing  houses  of  the  southern  states,  and  it 
is  probable  that  more  forcing  of  tomatoes  will  be  undertaken  in  this 
state  in  the  future.  No  vegetable  has  advanced  $o  rapidly  in  public 
esteem  during  the  last  decade  as  the  tomato. 

Requirements  of  the  Tomato. — For  early  tomatoes  which  can 
attain  their  chief  growth  before  the  close  of  the  rainy  season,  some- 
what elevated  situations,  above  the  lowland  frosts,  and  with  light, 
warm  soils  and  free  drainage,  should  be  selected.  Sometimes  frosts 
will  occasion  replanting,  for  which  a  stock  of  thrifty  plants  should 
always  be  in  readiness.  It  is  idle  to  attempt  the  growth  of  early 
tomatoes  on  a  commercial  scale  except  on  situations  naturally  fitted 
for  them.  In  the  family  garden  slight  covering  from  frost  can  be 
successfully  undertaken. 

For  the  main  crop  of  tomatoes,  rich,  lower  lands,  either 
naturally  retentive  of  moisture  or  supplied  therewith  by  irrigation, 
are  usually  employed.  -Even  heavy  valley  soils  are  profitably  used 
by  thorough  preparation  before  planting  and  cultivation  afterward. 
Late  planting  can  be  practiced  and  immense  yields  are  secured  for 
harvesting  in  September  and  October,  when  the  fruit  is  of  superior 
solidity  and  the  canneries  are  clear  of  their  summer  fruit  work 
and  can  turn  their  full  capacity  to  this  most  popular  canned  vege- 
table. In  some  parts  of  the  state,  November  and  December  toma- 
toes are  very  profitable  when  autumn  frosts  and  rains  are  light,  j 

The  moisture  requirements  of  the  tomato  are  moderate,  but 
they  must  be  adequately  met.  Stunted  vines  and  small,  inferior 
fruit  are  the  results  of  drought.  High  heat  can  be  endured  and 
favors  growth,  provided  ample  moisture  is  available.  The  more 
moderate  heat  of  the  coast  regions  and  the  interior  river  bottoms 
is,  however,  adequate  for  full  development  of  the  plant,  and  it  is 
attained  with  much  less  moisture  than  on  the  higher  lands  of  the 
interior.  For  this  reason  splendid  crops  are  secured  without  irri- 
gation on  retentive  soils  in  valleys  of  sufficient  rainfall,  even  if  the 
plants  are  not  set  until  the  opening  of  the  dry  season — provided 
suitable  winter  and  spring  working  is  given  to  prevent  evaporation 
and  to  hold  moisture  near  the  surface.  On  lands  moistened  by 
underflow  splendid  tomatoes  can  be  grown  without  irrigation  all 
through  the  local  frost-free  period. 


GARDEN    CULTURE    OF    TOMATOES 


289 


Culture. — Tomatoes  are  readily  grown  from  seed  and  the  best 
plants  are  those  produced  with  moderate  heat.  They  need  protec- 
tion from  cold  rather  than  forcing  heat,  as  our  day  temperatures 
from  February  onward  are  almost  always  adequate.  For  earlier 
starting  of  plants  some  bottom  heat  is  desirable  and  can  be  profit- 
ably used  if  care  is  taken  for  free  admission  of  air  and  subsequent 
hardening  of  the  plants  by  later  growth  under  protection  but  at 
lower  temperatures.  The  considerations  urged  in  the  chapter  on 
propagation  for  the  handling  of  seeds  and  seedlings  have  special 


Beds  for  Growing   Tomato  Plants  in  Imperial  Valley. 

applicability  to  the  growth  of  tomato  plants.  For  the  home  garden 
there  is  perhaps  no  better  way  of  growing  plants  than  that  of  Ira 
W.  Adams,  as  follows : 

Plant  the  seed  about  the  middle  of  February  in  a  small  box  two  inches 
in  depth  and  keep  in  the  house  by  a  south  window  in  a  moderately  warm 
room.  On  warm,  sunny  days,  put  them  outdoors,  and  let  them  remain  out 
day  and  night  whenever  the  weather  is  warm  enough;  in  this  way  they  will 
make  stocky  plants  and  be  much  hardier  than  if  raised  altogether  in  the 
house.  The  soil  should  be  rich  and  mellow,  and  always  kept  a  little  moist. 
When  the  plants  appear,  thin  out  to  an  inch  apart.  As  soon  as  the  plants 
begin  to  crowd  each  other,  transplant  to  another  box,  about  four  inches  in 
depth  and  give  them  a  space  of  four  inches.  By  the  time  they  crowd  each 
other  again  they  can  be  transplanted  outdoors  on  the  south  side  of  the  house 
or  barn  into  a  good-sized  bed  of  rich  soil.  Here  they  can  remain  until  they 


290  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

get  to  be  large,  strong,  hardy  plants,  with  very  large,  fibrous  roots.  When 
all  danger  of  frost  is  over,  take  a  sharp  spade  and  cut  out  a  square  of  dirt 
with  each  plant,  put  into  rows  six  feet  apart,  with  the  plants  the  same 
distance  in  the  row.  Plants  can  be  transplanted  in  this  way  when  over  a 
foot  high  and  in  blossom.  By  transplanting  them  just  at  night,  or  on  a 
cloudy  day,  they  will  hardly  ever  show  a  wilted  leaf. 

Another  way  to  secure  large  plants  for  garden  planting  is  to 
start  them  in  a  seed  box,  in  the  house,  or  with  bottom  heat  as  de- 
scribed in  the  chapter  on  propagation,  and  then  transplant  when 
small,  into  growing  cases  made  of  discarded  fruit  cans.  Select 
those  of  similar  size,  throw  them  on  a  burning  brush  pile  for  a  few 
minutes,  when  the  tops  and  bottoms  will  drop  out,  and  the  seams 
on  the  sides  will  open,  leaving  a  smooth,  tin  shell.  Tie  a  string 
around  each  to  keep  it  from  spreading.  Set  them  in  a  box  or  frame 
made  of  four  boards.  Fill  the  cans  and  the  spaces  between  them 
with  good  friable  soil,  set  a  small  plant  in  the  center  of  each  shell, 
sprinkle  well  and  keep  moist.  When  the  plants  are  well  grown 
they  may  be  transplanted  in  the  garden.  Take  the  cans  carefully 
out  of  the  frames,  grasping  the  cans  firmly  to  prevent  the  plants 
and  soil  slipping  out;  set  them  in  a  box  or  wheelbarrow  and  move 
them  where  wanted.  Prepare  the  soil  by  working  in  a  shovelful  of 
well-rotted  manure  where  a  plant  is  to  stand,  but  this  is  not  required 
if  the  soil  is  rich.  Dig  a  hole  deep  enough  to  set  the  upper  rim  of 
the  can  level  with  the  ground,  cut  the  string  and  fill  up  and  press 
the  soil  firmly  around  the  can,  then  by  spreading  the  top  of  the  can 
.•  trifle,  it  can  be  drawn  out  over  the  plants  without  disturbing  the 
roots.  If  the  weather  is  dry  and  warm,  water  may  be  used  at 
transplanting — drawing  loose  soil  around  the  plant  after  the  water 
soaks  away. 

Planting  in  the  Field. — The  above  methods  will  produce  plant? 
of  great  size  and  vigor  to  delight  the  amateur.  For  a  field  crop  it 
is  hardly  practicable  to  grow  and  handle  plants  in  such  an  expensive 
way,  and  satisfactory  results  can  be  attained  with  much  less  labor. 
For  late  planting  they  may  be  grown  in  quantity  in  a  cold  frame 
with  cloth  cover  or  in  a  raised  bed  with  slight  protection  from  frost 
and  sheltered  from  cold  winds,  or  even  on  the  open  ground  in  frost- 
less  places.  Large  quantities  are  often  grown  from  the  seed  by 
simply  thinning  the  seedlings  as  they  stand,  though  the  trans- 
planted seedlings  are  always  more  thrifty  and  stocky.  They  have 
a  much  better  root-system,  and  grow  more  thriftily  after  trans- 
planting. Take  the  seedlings  when  they  have  come  in  the  rough 


FIELD    CULTURE    OF    TOMATOES  291 

leaf,  and  with  a  small  hard-wood  stick,  made  pointed  at  one  end, 
take  up  the  young  plants  and  dibble  them  in  clear  down  to  the  seed 
leaf.  Place  them  about  three  inches  apart  each  way,  water  them 
well,  and  in  a  few  days  they  will  begin  to  grow,  and  in  this  way 
fine,  stocky  plants  can  be  grown  almost  ready  to  blossom  when 
they  are  set  out  in  the  open  ground  where  they  are  to  remain. 
There  is  nothing  gained  by  setting  out  tomatoes  in  the  open  ground 
when  they  are  too  small ;  if  anything,  time  is  lost  by  doing  so,  while 
a  large,  stocky  plant  has  plenty  of  fine  fibrous  roots,  and  is  rapidly 
established  in  its  new  place. 

Tomato  plants  may  also  be  grown  from  stem  cuttings,  as  de- 
scribed in  the  chapter  on  propagation. 

Planting  Out  Tomatoes. — In  addition  to  suggestions  already 
made  for  planting  out,  it  should  be  remarked  that  for  late  planting 
especially,  and  in  light  soils,  it  is  desirable  to  set  the  plants  quite 
deeply  in  the  soil.  The  rule  with  some  growers  is  to  set  the  plant 
half  the  length  of  the  stem  deeper  than  it  stood  in  the  seed  bed  and 
in  light,  dry  interior  soils  the  stem  has  been  entirely  buried  with 
good  results.  Depth  of  planting  depends  upon  the  character  of  the 
soil  and  its  content  of  moisture.  Where  moisture  is  to  be  abundant 
it  is  better  to  have  the  roots  nearer  the  surface. 

Preparation  of  land  for  tomatoes  should  begin  early  in  the 
rainy  season,  as  for  beans,  corn  or  melons,  to  render  the  soil  ab- 
sorptive of  moisture  and  to  secure  good  deep  tilth.  Re-working  in 
the  spring,  and  cultivation  until  it  is  safe  to  plant  out  the  tomatoes, 
keeps  the  soil  in  fine  condition,  saves  moisture  and  insures  a  crop 
at  minimum  cost.  Crops  are  often  grown  on  spring  plowing  alone, 
but  it  is  an  uphill  task,  and  attended  by  great  risk  of  failure,  if 
spring  rains  are  scant,  as  they  often  are. 

Field  planting  is  generally  done  by  hand,  sometimes  at  the 
intersection  of  cross-markings,  but  often  with  less  care,  by  placing 
the  plants  firmly  on  the  side  of  a  furrow  and  covering  with  another 
furrow.  Some  large  growers  use  the  transplanting  machine  men- 
tioned for  sweet  potatoes,  and  it  works  well  when  the  soil  is  in  good 
condition. 

Distance  depends  upon  variety.  The  usual  distance  is  six 
feet  apart  each  way,  for  the  standard  growers,  but  some  plant 
more  widely,  and  dwarf  varieties  are  set  at  intervals  of  four  feet. 

Summer  Treatment. — Very  seldom  is  any  effort  made  even  in 
garden  culture  to  support  the  plant  above  the  earth  surface.  As  the 


292  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

crop  is  almost  wholly  grown  without  irrigation  or  with  subirriga- 
tion  by  seepage  from  ditches,  the  earth  surface  is. always  warm  and 
dry,  and  rot  is  almost  unknown.  The  soil  should  be  cultivated  as 
long  as  it  can  be  done  without  injury  to  the  prostrate  plants.  Well- 
grown  plants  on  rich  moist  soils  almost  cover  the  surface  even  when 
given  the  widest  distances. 

It  is  commonly  believed  that  excessive  growth  of  foliage  re- 
tards ripening  and  reduces  fruitage.  Whenever  this  occurs,  as  on 
very  rich  and  moist  interior  soils,  free  cutting  back  of  the  plants 
with  a  scythe,  is  practiced  with  good  results.  Summer  pruning  of 
over-rank  garden  plants  is  also  desirable. 

Irrigation. — As  already  stated,  the  tomato  abhors  dry  soil,  and 
in  some  situations  irrigation  is  essential.  Care  must  be  had  against 
over-irrigation,  especially  in  the  coast  region,  where  proper  plant- 
ing and  cultivation  will  give  satisfactory  results  with  the  natural 
moisture.  Not  only  does  excessive  watering  promote  foliage  at 
the  expense  of  fruit,  but  it  is  apt  to  give  a  tomato  which  slices  up 
into  cart-wheels  instead  of  firm  and  solid  discs  of  flesh.  Most 
growers  cultivate  too  slackly,  especially  when  irrigation  water  is 
used. 

Irrigation  by  flooding  is  sometimes  successfully  practiced,  but 
application  of  water  which  does  not  wet  the  surface  beneath  the 
plants  is  preferred. 

Picking  Tomatoes. — Tomatoes  for  shipping  should  always  be 
picked  right.  For  such  purpose  the  fruit  should  be  picked  when 
slightly  blushed,  not  by  squeezing  or  pulling.  Encircle  it  with  all 
the  fingers  and  twist  carefully,  leaving  the  stem  on  the  vine,  or  rub 
it  afterward,  if  it  parts  from  the  vine.  Do  not  leave  the  stem  end 
on  the  fruit.  Pick  in  shallow  boxes,  not  in  deep  pails  or  baskets, 
and  use  two  receivers;  one  for  perfect  fruit,  the  other  for  culls. 
Do  not  handle  the  fruit  roughly,  even  if  it  seems  very  firm. 

Yield. — With  all  conditions  favorable,  tomatoes  make  a  very 
large  return.  Twelve  and  a  half  to  fifteen  tons  of  marketable 
tomatoes  have  been  gathered  as  an  average  per  acre  from  large 
tracts  in  Alameda  county.  The  largest  specimen  of  which  the 
writer  has  record  was  grown  in  Calaveras  county,  with  the  follow- 
ing dimensions:  circumference,  twenty-two  and  one-half  inches; 
diameter  at  widest  place,  eight  inches;  weight,  four  and  one-half 
pounds.  Mr.  Ira  W.  Adams  reports  that  he  grew  one  year  one 
hundred  and  thirty-six  pounds  of  ripe  tomatoes  from  one  vine,  and 


YIELD   AND   VARIETIES  293 

when  the  frost  came  picked  thirty-four  pounds  of  green  ones.  This 
vine  covered  a  space  of  nearly  eight  feet  square ;  it  grew  on  the  edge 
of  a  ditch  used  for  running  water  to  blackberry  vines.  It  was  an 
instance  of  ample  irrigation  by  seepage. 

Varieties. — California  grows  all  the  many  improved  tomatoes 
with  which  American  seedsmen  have  enriched  our  vegetable  list, 
and  new  varieties  should  always  be  looked  for  in  California  seeds- 
men's catalogues.  They  always  offer  choice  yellow  varieties  for 
preserving.  Varieties  which  include  those  commercially  most 
prominent,  are  as  follows : 

Sparks  Earliana:  very  early,  tall  growing;  fruit  large,  smooth,  scarlet; 
flesh  deep  red,  solid. 

Chalk's  Early  Jewel :  nearly  as  early ;  fruit  large,  smooth,  regular  in  form 
and  ripening  evenly;  bright  scarlet;  continuous  bearing. 

Dwarf  Champion:  low  growing,  upright;  fruit  medium,  pink  to  purplish 
red,  according  to  locality;  popular  in  the  interior  heat,  especially  at  the  south 
and  in  the  foothills  of  central  California. 

Stone:  tall  and  fruitful;  fruit  large,  smooth,  uniform,  bright  red,  solid; 
widely  popular  in  southern  California  for  market  and  shipping.  A  Dwarf 
Stone,  resembling  Dwarf  Champion  in  growth  is  also  a  good  shipping 
variety  at  the  south. 

Boulder :  resembling  Stone,  but  much  larger  fruit ;  popular  in  the  coast 
district  of  southern  California. 

Ponderosa:  a  strong  growing  vine;  fruit  very  large,  somewhat  irregular 
and  variable  in  color,  usually  light  red ;  flesh  thick  but  not  always  firm ;  chiefly 
grown  in  Sonoma  county  for  canning  and  market. 

Trophy:  vigorous  and  productive;  fruit  deep  red,  somewhat  irregular, 
solid  and  firm  in  the  true  type,  with  ring-mark  at  apex ;  chiefly  grown  for 
canning  in  Alameda  county,  displacing  Stone. 

There  is  an  opinion  current  among  California  growers  that 
even  the  best  of  the  eastern  improved  tomatoes  are  still  farther  im- 
proved by  California  growing  conditions  if  constant  selection  is 
practiced  to  preserve  the  best  types.  For  instance  the  "Trophy" 
is  very  largely  grown  as  a  late  tomato  for  canners'  use,  and  planters 
insist  upon  securing  California  grown  seed,  but  careless  seed  saving 
has  given  us  Trophies  widely  different  from  the  true  type  and 
very  inferior. 


CHAPTER    XXXIV. 

TURNIPS. 

TURNIP. — Brassica  napus. 

French,  navet;  German,  herbst-rube ;  Dutch,  raap ;  Danish,  roe;  Italian, 
navone ;    Spanish  and   Portuguese,   nabo. 

KOHL-RABI. — Brassica  caulo-rapa. 

French,    choux-raves ;    German,    knollkohl ;    Flemish,    raaphool ;    Italian, 
cavolo-rapa. 

RUTABAGA. — Idem. 

French,  choux-navets ;   German,  kohlriibe ;   Dutch,  koolraapen  onder  den 
grond;  Italian,  cavolo  navone. 

These  members  of  the  cabbage  family  are  somewhat  arbitrarily 
classed  as  turnips  for  convenience  and  in  accordance  with  local 
popular  usage.  Kohl-rabi  has  swollen  stem,  clearly  above  ground; 
rutabaga  has  a  swollen  root  partly  above  ground,  partly  below ;  the 
turnip  proper  is  another  species  of  brassica,  which  has  a  swollen 
root  and  a  manner  of  growth  like  rutabaga.  In  California  all  these 
vegetables  take  a  much  lower  rank  in  popularity  and  usefulness 
man  the  cabbage  group  of  the  same  genus  discussed  in  a  previous 
chapter;  judged  as  root  crops  they  are  inferior  in  use  and  esteem 
to  the  other  esculent  roots  already  considered.  They  have  no  local 
standing  whatever  for  stock  purposes,  for  two  reasons  at  least : 
they  no  not  endure  well  our  summer  heat  and  drought,  but  become 
a  prey  to  fungus  and  unthrift;  they  will  not  rest  and  start  again 
for  larger  root-expansion,  as  do  the  beet  and  carrot.  Such  being 
their  weakness  and  perversity,  the  stock  feeder  abandons  them, 
which  he  can  readily  afford  to  do  in  view  of  the  fact  that  he  has 
many  other  more  serviceable  crops.  He  can  have  any  quantity  of 
immense  beets  and  carrots  which  are  making  their  re-enlargement 
from  the  previous  spring  sowing,  to  feed  in  the  winter ;  he  can  have 
for  late  summer  use,  corn  and  squashes,  which  grow  riotously  in 
summer  heat  which  distresses  the  turnip.  He  does  well  enough 
without  the  turnip,  in  view  of  its  behavior  and  his  own  supplies 
from  other  sources. 

The  vegetables,  then,  which  we  group  in  this  chapter,  must 
be  estimated  alone  upon  their  table  value,  and  here  too  they  are  af- 

(294) 


CULTURE    OF    TURNIPS  295 

flicted  by  an  ill-indisposition.  They  are  not  good  keepers  in  this 
climate,  and,  though  they  can  be  packed  away  in  sand  for  use  dur- 
ing our  warm,  rainy  winter,  the  people  have  other  supplies  of 
fresher  character  in  the  winter,  and  do  not  find  either  turnips  or 
parsnips  as  desirable  as  they  are  in  wintry  countries. 

Turnips  and  rutabagas  are  then  reduced  to  claim  popularity 
upon  their  excellence  as  quickly  grown  for  immediate  use  when 
mature,  and  under  this  restriction  they  certainly  enjoy  a  fair 
measure  of  popularity.  Kohl-rabi  is  very  little  used  and  its  narrow 
fame  is  chiefly  confined  to  citizens  of  French  and  German  descent. 

Culture. — The  growth  of  all  these  plants  is  simple  and  can  be 
undertaken  anywhere  in  California,  providing  their  dislike  of  sum- 
mer heat  and  dry  air  is  borne  in  mind.  The  culture  methods  pre- 
scribed for  the  beet  and  carrot  befit  the  turnip  in  the  direction  of 
preparation  of  soil,  sowing  the  seed  and  cultivation.  The  plants 
are  hardy  against  frost  and  can  be  successfully  produced  all  through 
our  valley  winters.  Sowing  for  winter  use  may  begin  early  in  the 
fall  on  irrigated  ground  or  as  soon  as  the  rains  fall.  Sowing  for 
spring  and  early  summer  can  be  done  at  any  time  during  the  winter 
when  the  soil  is  sufficiently  dry  and  warm  for  germination  and 
growth  of  the  seedling.  In  valleys  of  heavy  rainfall  and  frosts. 
February  sowing  may  be  best  for  spring  use,  but  in  warmer,  drier 
parts  earlier  sowing  is  desirable.  The  plant  needs  adequate  moist- 
ure and  a  moderate  temperature,  and  its  growth  is  a  matter  of  con- 
ditions not  of  the  calendar.  It  is  plain,  then,  that  turnips  are  well 
adapted  to  winter  gardening  in  California,  and,  if  pushed  to  ma- 
turity rapidly,  they  will  be  found  very  tender  and  delicious.  Sow- 
ing for  succession  will  give  turnips  fresh  from  the  soil  in  all  their 
excellence  through  many  months  in  our  warmer  valleys. 

Both  the  flat  turnips  and  the  rutabagas  or  Swedish  turnips  are 
grown  in  the  same  way,  and  both  reach  edible  size  very  quickly 
under  favorable  conditions.  Culture  is  like  that  advised  for  the 
radish  except  that  they  need  wider  spacing.  Rutabagas  are  better 
keepers  and  more  serviceable  for  winter  storage  than  flat  turnips, 
though  both  are  mainly  used  fresh  from  the  ground  in  this  state. 

Rutabagas  are  sometimes  transplanted  from  the  seed-bed,  as 
space  becomes  available  here  and  there  in  the  garden  for  them. 
They  are  handled  just  as  cabbage  plants  are. 

Kohl-rabi  is  grown  in  the  same  way  as  common  cabbage,  both 
in  starting  plants  and  planting  out. 


296  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

Varieties. — The  flat  turnips  chiefly  grown  are  Early  White 
Dutch  and  Purple  Top  Milan — the  latter  being  preferred  by  market 
gardeners.  The  Purple  Top  Flat  Dutch  or  Strap  Leaf  and  Purple 
Top  White  Globe  are  also  in  good  favor. 

Rutabagas  are  so  little  grown  that  there  is  doubt  which  has 
the  preference  of  several  good  kinds  listed  by  our  seedsmen;  the 
Purple  Top  Yellow  or  Long  Island  seem,  however,  to  be  most 
popular. 

Of  Kohl-rabi  the  White  Vienna  is  usually  grown. 


CHAPTER    XXXV. 
VEGETABLE  SUNDRIES. 

It  is  not  intended  to  make  this  volume  a  complete  treatise  upon 
the  esculent  plants  which  may  be  grown  in  California,  nor  to  claim 
that  it  contains  a  complete  enumeration  of  those  which  are  actu- 
ally grown  at  the  present  time.  Such  a  task  would  be  appalling 
in  view  of  the  wide  adaptability  of  the  climate  and  the  fact  that  our 
population  includes  natives  of  every  country  under  the  sun  who 
have  brought  hither  the  plants  which  have  delighted  them  in  their 
old  homes.  Conspicuous  among  such  contributions  to  our  culti- 
vated flora  are  the  acquisitions  from  China  and  Japan,  which  alone 
would  require  much  time  to  identify  and  characterize.  Our  acqui- 
sitions of  minor  vegetables  from  Europe  are  hardly  less  interesting. 
It  must  be  left  for  some  future  student  to  properly  arrange  all  these 
for  public  information.  In  the  present  work  it  has  been  rather  the 
intention  of  the  writer  to  treat  the  more  conspicuous  and  widely 
useful  vegetables,  because  in  that  line  the  present  demand  for  in- 
formation lies.  An  attempt  will,  however,  be  made  in  this  chapter 
to  briefly  mention  a  few  plants  concerning  which  inquiry  may  arise 
in  the  minds  of  readers,  and  to  offer  suggestions  on  their  culture. 

CAPERS. — Capparis  spinosa. 

The  production  of  "capers"  on  a  commercial  scale  has  fre- 
quently been  mooted  in  California,  and  so  far  as  the  local  adoption 
of  the  plant  goes,  anticipations  of  success  seem  to  be  well  placed. 
The  plant  thrives  with  moderate  moisture — enough  could  be  con- 
served by  cultivation  on  any  fairly  retentive  soil.  It  has  been  grow- 
ing thriftily  for  years  on  adobe  soil  in  the  University  garden  in 
Berkeley,  and  has  produced  prolifically  the  flower-buds  which  are 
used  in  pickling.  The  labor  of  frequently  hand-picking  the  buds 
must,  however,  be  considered  in  connection  with  any  projected  en- 
terprise. A  few  plants  for  the  home  garden  can  be  strongly  com- 
mended. They  can  be  grown  in  corners  or  in  borders  and  are 
decidedly  handsome  in  leaf  and  blossom.  Plants  may  be  easily 

(297) 


298  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

grown  from  seed  in  a  seed-box  or  can  be  multiplied  by  stem  cut- 
tings in  a  sand  box  over  mild  bottom  heat. 

CHERVIL. — Scandix  ccrefolium  and  Charophyllum  bulbosum. 

There  are  two  edible  plants  known  as  chervil,  the  first  fur- 
nishes fragrant  leaves  which  are  used  as  seasoning  and  in  salad, 
the  second  an  edible  root  for  boiling.  The  first  is  a  hardy  annual, 
and  can  be  grown  from  seed,  as  lettuce  is — sowing  whenever 
moisture  is  adequate.  It  does  not  thrive  in  high  heat  but  can  be 
helped  by  shading  when  necessary.  The  turnip-rooted  chervil  re- 
sembles a  carrot  in  form,  and  may  be  grown  as  carrots  are.  The 
seed  soon  loses  its  germinating  power  and  must  be  fresh. 

CORN  SALADS. — Valerianella  olitoria  and  eriocarpa. 

Corn  salads  are  popular  winter  growing  salad  plants,  and  are 
of  easy  culture.  The  seed  is  sown  whenever  moisture  is  present  in 
the  fall,  and  a  succession  of  foliage  can  be  had  all  through  the 
rainy  season.  The  culture  is  the  same  as  for  lettuce.  The  plant 
also  resembles  lettuce ;  we  have  some  varieties  of  open  growth  and 
some  which  are  disposed  to  form  somewhat  compact  heads  of 
foliage.  In  this  state  both  the  French  and  Italian  improved  kinds  are 
hardy  in  California  valley  winters. 

CRESS. — Lepidium  sativum,   and   WATER    CRESS. — Nasturtium 

officinale. 

Garden  cress  is  easily  grown  all  the  year  in  the  coast  region 
if  the  ground  is  kept  moist.  The  seed  should  be  sown  at  short 
intervals,  as  the  leaves  come  on  very  quickly.  In  the  interior  it  is 
chiefly  a  winter  plant,  as  summer  heat  checks  leaf  growth  and 
carries  the  plant  to  seed.  Water  cress  has  grown  freely  in  Cali- 
fornia ponds  and  pools,  and  was  found  in  such  places  by  our  earlier 
botanists.  In  California  it  makes  very  rank  growth,  producing 
stems  five  and  six  feet  high  and  proportionate  luxuriance  of  leaf 
growth.  It  usually  volunteers  freely  wherever  water  stands,  filling 
road-side  ditches  and  similar  places.  All  that  is  needed  is  to  pre- 
pare a  place  suitable  for  its  growth. 

DANDELION. — Leontodon  taraxacum. 

This  plant  has  been  widely  introduced  on  the  moister  lands 
throughout  the  state,  and  is  used  for  salad  and  for  boiling,  as  it 


SUNDRY    VEGETABLES  299 

appears  in  abundance  after  the  fall  rains.  The  plant  is  also  grown 
to  a  limited  extent  by  foreign-born  market  gardeners,  and  some  of 
the  improved  garden  varieties  have  been  introduced  for  their  use. 
It  can  be  grown  as  lettuce  is,  whenever  the  soil  carries  moisture 
enough. 

GHERKIN. — Cucumis  anguria. 

This  plant  is  different  from  the  small  pickling  cucumbers 
which  are  often  called  gherkins.  It  is  a  creeping,  branching  plant, 
making  a  dense  mat  of  stems  well  laden  with  small,  oval  fruit 
covered  with  spine-like  protuberances.  It  endures  heat  and  drought 
well,  and  is  very  prolific  even  in  interior  situations  in  California. 

KITCHEN  HERBS. 

It  is  hardly  desirable  to  enumerate  a  list  of  culinary  herbs. 
Each  housewife  has  her  own  information  and  preference  and  be- 
yond that  her  cook-book  is  an  encyclopedia.  Suffice  it  to  say  that 
nearly  the  whole  collection  of  plants  grown  in  northern  climates 
for  fragrant  leaves  or  seeds  is  hardy  in  the  California  winter,  and 
most  of  them  do  best  with  early  sowing — as  soon  as  the  soil  is  well 
moistened  by  the  fall  rains.  Most  failures  with  them  are  traceable 
to  sowing  too  late,  which  comes  from  following  eastern  practice. 
Where  the  winter  is  quite  frosty,  fall  sowing  is  less  desirable,  but 
with  February  warmth  the  seed  should  be  in  the  ground.  Early 
sowing  enables  the  plants  to  secure  good  rooting,  and  with  that, 
growth  can  be  carried  later  in  the  dry  season.  Late  sowing  causes 
many  a  plant  to  dwindle  in  the  summer  heat  even  if  irrigation  is 
afforded.  It  must  also  be  remembered  that  many  plants  must  be 
diligently  cultivated  during  our  dry  season  which  thrive  without  it 
in  the  humid  summer  of  other  countries. 

MUSHROOMS. 

Field  growth  of  mushrooms  is  abundant  during  the  rainy  sea- 
son in  California — especially  do  the  fall  rains  bring  to  view  such 
great  quantities  of  them  that  they  can  be  easily  gathered  by  bushels. 
The  list  of  edible  mushrooms  in  California  includes  many  species 
which  afford  a  fine  field  for  mycological  epicures.  Recently  there 
has  arisen  quite  a  producing  interest  in  the  line  of  cellar  culture  of 
mushrooms  chiefly  by  foreigners,  and  their  methods  are  essentially 
the  same  that  are  practiced  elsewhere,  descriptions  of  which  are 


300  CALIFORNIA   VEGETABLES 

readily  available.  The  leading  American  authority  on  the  subject 
is  William  Falconer,  and  a  Farmers'  Bulletin  written  by  him  and 
furnished  free  on  application  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  at 
Washington  will  give  the  inquirer  a  good  outline  of  arrangement 
and  methods. 

MUSTARD. — Sinapis  sp. 

Mustard  is  a  grievous  weed  in  California,  especially  on  rich 
soils  with  moisture.  It  is  also  sometimes  very  profitable  as  grown 
for  a  seed  crop.  The  young  plant  is  sought  in  the  fields  as  a  salad 
and  improved  varieties  are  cultivated  to  some  extent.  Both  the 
white  and  the  large  cabbage-leaved  Chinese  kind  are  grown.  The 
culture  is  most  easy  and  simple,  the  treatment  being  the  same  as 
that  of  lettuce. 

NASTURTIUM  . — Tropceolum. 

Nasturtiums  are  largely  grown  as  ornamental  pants,  but  the 
desirability  of  the  flowers  for  the  garnishing  of  salads  and  the  use 
of  the  flower  buds  and  green  seed  for  picking  and  as  a  substitute 
for  capers  gives  the  plants  space  in  the  vegetable  garden.  They 
will  thrive  almost  without  care  or  watering  in  a  corner  of  the  gar- 
den, though  better  growth  will  show  their  appreciation  of  better 
treatment.  They  volunteer  freely  in  California  from  self-sown 
seed  and  continue  growth  all  through  the  frost-free  season.  They 
can  be  trained  on  fence  or  trellis  or  allowed  free  range  as  prostrate 
plants  if  space  permits ;  or  dwarf  varieties  may  be  chosen,  as  they 
bloom  and  fruit  freely  with  less  extension.  They  require  little  more 
from  the  grower  than  the  covering  of  the  seed  in  soil  moist  enough 
for  germination. 

OKRA  OR  GUMBO. — Hibiscus  esculent  us. 

This  popular  vegetable  of  the  south  is  not  largely  grown  in 
California  but  can  usually  be  had  from  market  gardeners.  It  re- 
quires generous  moisture  supply  to  thrive  and  does  not  take  at  all 
kindly  to  dry  heat.  Plants  may  be  started  in  the  winter  in  the  ways 
described  for  the  tomato,  and  the  planting  out  and  treatment  is  like 
that  of  egg  plants;  or  seed  may  be  sown  for  later  crop  in  the  open 
ground  in  drills,  the  plants  being  subsequently  thinned  to  about  a 
foot  apart.  The  plants  should  be  well  cultivated  and  kept  well  sup- 
plied with  water.  The  Long  Green  and  the  White  Velvet  are  the 
varieties  chiefly  grown. 


SUNDRY   VEGETABLES  301 

PARSLEY. — Apium  petroselinum. 

Parsley  can  be  readily  grown  in  California  by  the  use  of  a 
raised  bed  for  fall  sowing  for  winter  use  and  by  sowing  in  the  early 
spring  for  flat  culture  for  summer  use.  The  culture  is  like  that  for 
lettuce  except  that  the  plants  need  wider  spacing  and  extra  care 
has  to  be  taken  to  protect  the  seed  from  drying  out,  as  it  is  long 
in  germinating  and  can  not  be  deeply  covered.  Good  firming  of  the 
ground  after  previous  deep  culture  is  desirable,  and  a  light  mulch 
will  help  to  retain  moisture  and  facilitate  watering  without  crust- 
ing the  ground. 

ROSELLE. — Hibiscus  subdariffa. 

This  interesting  plant,  resembling  in  its  growth  okra  or  gumbo, 
is  a  native  of  tropical  Asia  and  Africa,  and  has  been  widely  distrib- 
uted through  semi-tropical  countries,  where  it  has  been  found  to 
possess  considerable  resistance  to  drought  and  to  yield  very 
acceptable  food  products.  It  has  recently  been  introduced 
in  California  —  the  seed  having  been  distributed  by  the 
State  University.  The  plant  is  very  ornamental,  the  dark 
red  stems  and  pods  showing  through  the  rather  scant  dark 
green  foliage.  The  flowers  are  of  a  yellowish  white  with 
a  dark  red  center,  two  inches  across  and  lasting  only  an 
hour  or  so  during  fair  weather.  The  juice  extracted  from  the  fleshy 
calyces  or  husks  is  used  with  water  to  make  an  acidulous  cooling 
drink,  but  is  of  most  value  in  jelly-making.  The  mucilaginous  prop- 
erties of  the  juice  render  the  "setting"  of  the  jelly  certain,  with  a 
reasonable  amount  of  cooking.  The  dark  cherry  color  of  the  jelly 
and  the  sprightly  acid  make  it  nearly  if  not  equal  to  currant  jelly. 
Irrigated  plants  produce  a  more  highly  colored  fruit,  but  come  into 
bearing  later.  Unirrigated  plants  put  their  strength  into  fruit,  but 
the  irrigated  plants  start  lateral  branches,  which  ultimately  produce 
several  pods,  while  the  unirrigated  plants  have  but  one  pod.  As 
the  plant  will  endure  quite  heated  and  arid  situations,  it  promises  to 
be  of  much  value  for  jelly-making  where  currants  do  not  thrive. 
The  plant  should  be  given  ordinary  garden  culture,  sowing  the  seed 
when  danger  of  frost  is  over.  Enough  of  the  pods  should  be  al- 
lowed to  ripen  to  yield  seed  for  the  following  year. 

SEA  KALE. — Crambe  maritima. 

This  plant  is  but  little  grown  in  California,  and  then  only  by 
professional  gardeners.  It  requires  long  use  of  the  ground  and  con- 


302  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

siderable  attention  in  provision  for  blanching.  Plants  may  be  grown 
from  seed,  if  it  is  fresh,  as  tomato  plants  are  grown,  and  planted 
out  at  about  three  feet  apart  each  way.  Plants  can  also  be  grown 
from  root  cuttings  as  described  for  horse-radish,  placing  them  about 
three  feet  apart  each  way.  Plants  from  root  cuttings  should  be  al- 
lowed free  growth  for  at  least  one  year,  and  seedlings  twice  as  long. 
Preparation  for  use  consists  in  covering  the  plant  with  an  inverted 
pot  or  box  as  the  shoots  appear  and  allowing  it  to  make  its  growth 
in  the  dark,  thus  producing  blanched  and  tender  midribs.  In  cut- 
ting, the  knife  should  go  below  the  root  crown,  as  new  shoots  come 
readily  from  below.  Old  roots  are  productive  for  many  years  if 
allowed  to  grow  freely  but  not  to  form  seed  after  the  early  growth 
is  cut  for  use. 

SQUARE-POD  PEA. — Lotus  tetragonolobus. 

This  plant  has  recently  acquired  some  little  popularity  in  Cali- 
fornia as  a  table  vegetable.  It  will  make  a  good  winter  growth  in 
some  regions  of  the  state,  though  a  little  spring  heat  is  more  pleas- 
ing to  it.  Its  culture  is  like  that  of  garden  peas,  and,  if  sown  during 
the  rainy  season,  will  bear  an  abundance  of  edible  pods  for  early 
spring  use.  The  pods  should  be  gathered  when  young  and  tender 
and  are  cooked  like  string  beans. 

CHINESE  YAM.—Dioscoria  batatas. 

This  climbing  plant  grows  thriftily  in  California  and  sends,  its 
fleshy  roots,  which  are  the  edible  part,  so  deep  that  it  seems  to 
contemplate  return  to  its  native  country.  To  get  the  roots  one  has 
to  dig  a  well  several  feet  deep,  because  they  are  so  brittle  that  they 
will  stand  no  pulling  whatever.  With  present  prices  of  labor  in  this 
country  it  is  not  profitable  to  go  into  deep  mining  to  get  starchy 
food,  and  the  plant  is  grown  only  as  a  curiosity. 


CHAPTER    XXXVI. 
VEGETABLES  FOR  CANNING  AND  DRYING. 

The  importance  of  vegetable  canning  in  California  is  noted  in 
the  opening  chapter  of  this  work.  At  the  present  time  large  areas 
of  vegetables  are  grown  to  fill  contracts  with  canners,  and  their 
purchases  in  open  market  are  a  great  relief  in  times  of  over-supply. 
It  is  reasonable  to  expect  that  this  important  canning  interest  will 
largely  increase  as  larger  distant  markets  can  be  commanded,  and 
as  the  growth  of  population  west  of  the  Missouri  river  demands 
greater  supplies.  California  has  marked  advantages  in  the  produc- 
tion of  canning  vegetables  at  minimum  cost  and  in  the  highest 
quality. 

As  this  treatise  is  prepared  for  the  information  of  vegetable 
growers,  it  seems  fitting  that  some  space  should  be  given  to  an 
exposition  of  what  constitutes  excellence  in  a  vegetable  from  a  can- 
ner's  point  of  view,  although  it  is  impossible  to  enter  into  the  subject 
as  fully  as  its  importance  warrants. 

Asparagus. — The  trade  demands  large,  white,  tender  spears, 
with  the  tip  wholly  unopened  or  headed  out.  To  secure  the  shoots 
in  this  condition,  they  must  be  cut  very  closely,  which  is  done  by 
keeping  the  soil  in  fine,  deep  tilth,  and  cutting  low,  as  nearly  as 
practicable,  before  the  point  is  exposed  to  the  air.  A  few  hours' 
growth  in  the  sun  not  only  causes  the  head  to  color,  but  it  begins 
to  open  very  rapidly.  Other  information  has  been  given  in  the 
chapter  on  asparagus. 

String  Beans. — This  vegetable  has  not  been  canned  to  any  con- 
siderable extent  in  California,  inasmuch  as  the  fresh  vegetable  is 
on  the  market  such  a  large  portion  of  the  year,  that  there  is  less 
need  of  buying  it  in  cans.  The  first  canner  who  made  a  specialty 
of  string  beans  was  Mr.  H.  Wambold,  of  Blue  Lakes,  Lake  county, 
who  had  a  piece  of  land  that  seemed  to  be  better  adapted  to  the  pro- 
duction of  string  beans  than  any  other  vegetable,  and  this  land  has 
grown  the  same  crop  for  twenty  consecutive  years.  The  yield  from 
the  commencement  being  so  large,  the  home  market  so  limited,  and 

(303) 


304  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

being  too  remote  from  the  railroad  for  shipping  to  the  San  Fran- 
cisco market,  he  was  forced,  as  a  last  resort,  to  pack  the  vegetable, 
and  by  strict  attention  to  every  detail  he  soon  built  such  a  reputa- 
tion for  his  canned  beans  that  his  yearly  output  is  easily  disposed 
of  at  a  good  profit.  The  points  of  quality  in  a  string  bean  for  can- 
ning, are  green  color,  tenderness,  and  it  must  be  as  nearly  as  possi- 
ble stringless,  or,  at  any  rate,  a  variety  that  can  be  easily  handled, 
leaving  no  strings  on  them,  when  ordinary  care  is  used.  Recently 
the  business  established  by  Mr.  Wambold  has  been  greatly  expanded 
and  others  have  engaged  largely  in  it,  including  a  considerable  cor- 
poration organized  to  operate  in  Lake  county. 

Peas. — The  desirable  points  in  this  vegetable  from  a  canner's 
point  of  view  are  that  they  shall  be  small,  green,  sweet,  and  tender. 
There  are  a  great  many  varieties  which  have  been  handled  success- 
fully in  this  state,  as  stated  in  the  chapter  on  the  Pea,  such  as 
Premium  Gem,  Alaska.  This  vegetable  is  so  dependent  on  atmos- 
pheric moisture  that  a  crop  cannot  be  counted  upon  every  year  in 
the  interior;  for  lack  of  rains  at  the  time  when  the  plant  needed 
moisture,  and  apparently  irrigation  does  not  solve  the  difficulty,  as 
the  pea  seems  to  need  a  somewhat  moist  atmosphere.  There  has 
been  recently  in  operation  a  large  pea  growing  interest  in  eastern 
Stanislaus  county,  operating  successfully. 

Tomatoes. — The  fruit  must  be  of  red  color,  firm,  few  seeds,  and 
smooth  skin,  that  is,  not  wrinkled.  A  medium  size  answers  the 
purpose  better  than  the  extremely  large  varieties.  The  tomato  is 
canned  largely  as  indicated  in  Chapter  I,  and  the  culture  of  the  plant 
is  fully  discussed  in  Chapter  XXXIII. 

Corn. — California  makes  no  record  in  canning  corn.  The 
special  corn  canneries  of  the  eastern  states  have  manufacturing  ad- 
vantages on  their  side  and  the  eastern  corn  grower  has  also  ad- 
vantages. California  has  a  longer  green-corn  season,  as  shown  in 
the  chapter  on  that  subject,  but  that  counts  more  for  the  table  than 
the  cannery. 

DRYING    VEGETABLES. 

Very  fine  samples  of  dried  vegetables  have  been  shown  from 
time  to  time  in  California,  and  the  output  of  a  considerable  product 
in  this  line  is  clearly  feasible  if  it  could  command  a  welcome  in  the 
markets.  This  fact  has  not  yet  been  demonstrated.  The  rush  to 
Alaskan  gold  fields  in  the  summer  of  1897  created  a  demand  for 
considerable  quantities  of  dried  vegetables,  chiefly  potatoes,  and 


DRYING   VEGETABLES  305 

the  drying  establishment  of  Penniman  Brothers  of  San  Jose,  which 
was  opened  for  vegetable  drying  in  1889  and  subsequently  turned 
to  other  uses  for  lack  of  demand,  was  turned  again  to  vegetables  to 
supply  sharp  orders  for  Alaskan  shipment.  Onions,  potatoes,  string 
beans  and  carrots  were  dried  and  several  slicing  machines  were 
used.  Dried  potatoes  sold  at  12  to  17  cents  per  pound  and  onions 
at  25  to  30  cents.  A  drying  establishment  at  Azusa,  Los  Angeles 
county,  was  also  operated  for  vegetables  during  part  of  the  season, 
and  others  probably  participated.  If  the  development  of  the  mining 
interests  in  the  extreme  north  should  proceed  as  anticipated,  the 
Pacific  states  would  find  a  good  market  for  large  quantities  of  dried 
vegetables  as  well  as  dried  fruits.  Experience  thus  far  seems  to 
favor  machine  evaporation  rather  than  sun  drying,  but  it  is  quite 
probable  that  sun  heat  may  be  found  available,  at  least  for  part  of 
the  work,  when  further  attention  is  given  to  the  matter.  The  fol- 
lowing outline  of  methods  may  assist  local  experimenters: 

Potatoes. — Peeling  can  be  done  with  an  apple  parer  but  large  estab- 
lishments are  provided  with  a  cylindrical  machine  in  which  the  potatoes  are 
placed  and  revolved  at  high  speed.  The  tin  of  which  the  cylinder  is  made 
is  punched  through  from  the  outside  in  a  large  number  of  places,  making 
its  inner  side  a  grater,  which  soon  scrapes  the  skin  off  the  potatoes.  The 
potatoes  are  then  sliced  with  an  apple  chopping  or  an  apple  slicing  machine. 
After  slicing,  the  potatoes  are  boiled  from  five  to  ten  minutes,  but  in  some 
factories  they  are  boiled  until  two-thirds  done.  They  are  then  placed  in 
the  evaporator  and  thoroughly  dried.  If  it  is  desired  to  bleach  them  they 
should  be  placed  in  the  sulphur  box  before  they  are  boiled. 

Onions. — Onions  are  easily  evaporated.  They  should  be  peeled,  sliced, 
boiled  from  six  to  eight  minutes  and  then  spread  Upon  the  trays  and  placed 
in  the  evaporator.  From  one  hundred  pounds  of  fresh  onions  there  should 
be  obtained  ten  to  twelve  pounds  of  dried  product. 

String  Beans. — String  beans  should  be  at  the  right  stage  for  immediate 
use  as  such.  The  strings  should  be  removed  and  then  broken  up  as  if  to  be 
immediately  prepared  for  the  table.  In  order  to  preserve  their  natural 
color,  boil  them  in  a  bath  made  by  dissolving  five  pounds  of  carbonate  of 
soda  in  twelve  gallons  of  water.  They  should  remain  in  this  boiling  bath 
six  or  seven  minutes.  In  any  event  it  is  necessary  to  boil  them  for  this 
length  of  time  in  order  to  coagulate  the  albumen,  which  would  otherwise 
undergo  slow  fermentation  and  injure  the  dried  product.  It  is  not  safe  to 
use  a  very  high  temperature  in  drying  string  beans,  as  there  is  some  danger 
of  scorching  them. 

Green  Peas. — Green  peas  at  the  right  stage  for  table  use  make  a  very 
choice  dried  product.  They  should  be  shelled,  boiled  about  five  minutes, 
and  then  spread  upon  vhe  trays,  which  must  first  be  covered  with  muslin 
cloths.  In  drying  peas  use  a  temperature  between  110  and  120  degrees. 


306  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

Sweet  Corn. — The  corn  should  be  at  the  right  stage  for  table  use.  Clean 
the  ears  thoroughly  of  silk  and  cut  off  bad  spots.  Then  boil  or  steam  for 
five  minutes.  Use  a  slaw  cutter  and  set  so  that  it  will  require  three  or 
four  slices  to  get  off  all  the  corn,  and  be  sure  not  to  cut  deep  enough  to  take 
any  of  the  cob.  Cover  the  trays  with  muslin  cloths  and  spread  the  corn 
evenly  and  not  very  thickly.  Stir  the  corn  occasionally  while  drying.  Dry 
thoroughly,  and  then  cool  it  and  box  it  at  once,  so  as  to  prevent  the  moths 
from  getting  at  it.  It  must  be  thoroughly  dry  and  cool  before  boxing, 
however. 

Tomatoes. — Scald  the  tomatoes,  slice  and  spread  on  trays.  Use  high 
heat  on  start  and  finish  with  a  moderate  temperature.  A  bushel  of  tomatoes 
should  give  four  or  five  pounds  of  product. 

Cabbage. — Cabbages  are  trimmed,  cut  up  on  a  slaw  cutter,  boiled  for 
six  or  eight  minutes,  and  then  evaporated.  It  takes  about  fourteen  pounds 
of  fresh  cabbage  to  make  one  of  dry. 

Pumpkins  and  Squashes. — These  can  be  dried  without  a  preliminary 
boiling.  They  are  simply  peeled  and  sliced  and  then  evaporated.  In  pre- 
paring for  market,  it  is  the  custom  to  grind  the  product  into  flour. 

If  the  demand  for  these  products  should  continue  and  expand, 
there  is  every  reason  to  anticipate  that  local  devices  for  labor-saving 
and  cheapening  of  the  product  would  be  devised  by  local  inventors. 


CHAPTER    XXXVII. 
SEED  GROWING  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

The  commercial  production  of  garden  seeds  in  California  was 
entered  upon  by  the  first  American  vegetable  growers  as  a  branch 
of  their  business.  The  difficulty  of  obtaining  supplies  from  the  east 
and  the  almost  fabulous  prices  which  seeds  commanded,  acted  as  a 
strong  incentive  to  local  production.  The  inventory  of  Mr.  John  M. 
Horner's  productions  at  Alvarado  in  1851  included  eleven  hundred 
pounds  of  garden  seeds — onions,  beets  and  cabbage.  Mr.  A.  P. 
Smith  at  Sacramento  had  twenty  acres  devoted  to  seed  growing  in 
1857,  and  the  following  record  shows  that  he  had  been  doing  a  good 
business  for  some  time  before  that  date : 

To  his  vegetable  seed  department  Mr.  Smith  turned  his  attention  at  an 
early  day,  and  has  pursued  it  till  now  he  devotes  to  it  twenty  acres  of 
ground  and  the  time  of  several  laborers,  and  from  it  reaps  a  merited  reward. 
His  crop  of  seeds  for  the  last  four  .years  has  reached  from  three  to  four 
thousand  pounds  per  annum,  which  up  to  1858'  averaged  about  three  dollars 
per  pound.  They  now  sell  for  less.1 

Another  pioneer  seed  grower  was  Mr.  D.  L.  Perkins  of  Ala- 
meda.  The  record  states  that  he  "served  a  thorough  apprenticeship 
in  the  business  at  the  east  and  is  quite  at  home  in  all  general  opera- 
tions connected  with  his  business."  At  the  state  fair  in  1860 
premiums  for  garden  seeds  were  awarded  to  A.  P.  Smith  of  Sacra- 
mento and  to  D.  L.  Perkins  of  Alameda.  The  committee  reported 
both  exhibits  very  meritorious  and  indulged  in  the  prophecy  that 
"the  time  is  at  hand  when  our  gardeners  will  be  saved  the  time, 
trouble  and  expense  of  looking  abroad  for  their  seeds." 

It  would  seem  that  Mr.  Perkins  must  be  credited  with  a  broader 
conception  of  the  opportunity  of  California  in  seed  growing  than 
was  known  to  the  awarding  committee.  With  them  the  problem 
was  local  supply.  Mr.  Perkins  looked  beyond  that.  In  his  state- 
ment submitted  with  a  claim  for  a  gold  medal  at  the  state  fair  of 
1867  he  uses  these  significant  words: 

!Rep.  Cal.  Agr.  Sqciety,  1858,  p.  233. 

(307) 


308  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES 

For  the  past  ten  years  all  my  time  has  been  given  to  the  raising  of  seeds 
.  .  .  striving  to  get  the  best  seeds  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  During 
the  past  three  years  I  have  sent  collections  of  seeds  to  be  tested  at  the  east 
and  the  results  in  size  and  quality  over  the  same  varieties  grown  at  the  east 
have  been  so  marked  that  several  parties  have  ordered  from  me,  thus  show- 
ing that  California  can  compete  with  the  world  for  garden  seeds.  There  is 
no  State  in  the  Union  so  well  adapted  to  the  raising  of  seeds  as  California. 
During  five  years  past  I  have  sent  samples  of  my  product  to  Japan,  China, 
Sandwich  Islands,  Mexico,  and  to  Europe.2 

Probably  this  statement  of  Mr.  Perkins  was  the  first  formal 
prophecy  of  the  eminence  which  California  would  ere  long  com- 
mand in  the  seed  markets  of  the  world.  It  found  an  echo  in  the 
words  of  Peter  Henderson,  the  veteran  seedsman  and  florist,  who 
wrote  in  1882:  "California  will,  I  am  certain,  fifty  years  from  now, 
grow  seeds  for  the  world.  It  has  all  the  conditions  of  soil  and  cli- 
mate for  seed  growing."  The  progress  attained  during  the  last  few 
years  justifies  Mr.  Perkins'  enthusiastic  declaration  and  indicates 
that  Mr.  Henderson's  time  limit  was  certainly  conservative  and  safe, 
for  in  certain  lines  surely  such  a  position  has  already  been  realized 
and  in  less  than  a  third  of  his  period. 

A  New  Start. — Mr.  Perkins  did  not  continue  to  the  demonstra- 
tion of  his  problem.  His  attention  was  diverted  to  other  matters, 
and  it  remained  for  others  to  actually  work  the  mine  of  which  he 
was  only  the  prospector.  Theirs  have  been  the  labors  and  the  bur- 
dens, and  it  is  gratifying  to  add  that,  through  carrying  them  intelli- 
gently and  devotedly,  they  have  attained  reward  and  have,  in  part  at 
least,  realized  for  the  state  the  prominence  which  was  prophesied 
by  the  pioneers. 

In  1875  Mr.  R.  W.  Wilson,  previously  a  seed  grower  at  Ro- 
chester, New  York,  began  seed  growing  near  Santa  Clara,  and  is 
regarded  as  the  pioneer  of  the  present  era  of  California  seed  grow- 
ing. He  began  on  about  fifty  acres  of  land,  growing  principally 
onion,  lettuce,  carrot,  and  beet  seed.  Two  years  later  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Kellogg  &  Morse,  who  continued  together,  increasing  the 
dimensions  of  their  business  until  1889,  when  Mr.  Kellogg  retired 
and  C.  C.  Morse  &  Co.  became  the  successors  to  the  business.  They 
have  extended  and  developed  their  enterprise  to  dimensions  which 
few  Californians  realize,  and  are  not  only  leaders  in  seed  growing, 
but  in  the  seed  trade  as  well.  Aside  from  this  large  firm  there  are 


2Condensed  from  Rep.  Cal.  Agr.  Society,  1866-7,  pp.  228  and  229. 


VARIETIES    OF    SEEDS    GROWN  309 

other  producers  who  have  achieved  most  creditable  results  in  the 
development  of  specialties  which  have  given  them  wide  reputations 
and  contributed  to  the  fame  of  the  state  in  advanced  horticulture. 

It  will  be  impossible  to  adequately  describe  California  seed 
growing  in  a  single  chapter.  Only  a  few  salient  facts  can  be 
mentioned. 

Onion  Seed. — This  seed  has  held  the  leading  place  in  California 
seed  growing  from  the  very  beginning — at  first  for  local  use,  after- 
ward for  distant  sale.  In  spite  of  the  eastern  plaudits  which  Mr. 
Perkins  won  for  his  seed,  as  already  stated,  it  was  a  difficult  under- 
taking to  induce  eastern  dealers  to  use  it  largely  at  first.  When  Mr. 
Wilson  offered  his  first  crop  of  onion  seed  in  the  east,  scarcely  any 
one  would  touch  it  and  some  who  did,  claimed  afterwards  that  the 
bulbs  grown  from  it  were  soft,  would  not  keep  and  were  inferior; 
The  next  year  Mr.  Wilson  sent  quite  a  quantity  of  the  seed  to  a 
dozen  or  more  of  the  leading  dealers,  who  planted  it  beside  eastern 
seed.  In  the  fall  Mr.  Wilson  went  east  and  personally  inspected 
the  crops,  compared  the  bulbs  and  was  able  to  show  that  in  every 
instance  California  seed  produced  as  good  onions  as  that  they  had 
been  using  before.  From  that  time  on  California  onion  seed  has 
constantly  grown  in  favor,  and  this  state  has  become  almost  the 
only  source  of  supplies,  though  there  are  places  in  Connecticut  and 
Pennsylvania  where  a  considerable  amount  is  still  grown.  This 
popularity  secured  a  price  which  was  quite  profitable,  and  many 
grew  onion  seed — too  many  in  fact,  for  there  has  been  a  disastrous 
overproduction  for  the  last  two  years. 

Lettuce. — Lettuce  seed  is  a  leading  crop  with  California  seed 
growers.  The  climate  of  some  parts  of  the  coast  valleys  is  admirably 
adapted  to  it.  It  requires  careful,  painstaking  work  to  maintain 
choice  varieties.  Unfortunately,  the  plant  seeds  most  freely  in  a 
semi-wild  condition  and  some  of  the  less  critical  growers  have  al- 
lowed it  to  grow  in  this  way,  thereby  increasing  yield  and  profit. 
The  careful  grower  proceeds  with  cultivation  fitted  to  retain  the 
characters  of  the  variety,  thins  out  the  plants  so  that  each  will  form 
a  perfect  head  and  be  true  to  the  type,  and  then  the  heading  or  cab- 
bage varieties  must  have  the  head  cut  open  with  a  knife  to  allow 
the  seed  stem  to  come  through ;  otherwise  the  plant  will  rot  without 
running  to  seed.  This  method  of  growing  is  not  conducive  to  a 
large  seed  product,  but  it  improves  the  strain,  while  the  work  of  the 
careless  grower  tends  to  reversion. 


310  CALIFORNIA  VEGETABLES 

Other  Plants. — Carrot,  celery,  leek,  endive,  kale,  kohlrabi, 
parsnip,  and  parsley  are  all  grown  by  California  seed  growers, 
though  their  demand  is  limited,  owing  to  keen  competition  with 
European  growers,  who  are  usually  able  to  contract  these  crops  at 
less  than  the  cost  of  production  here.  Peas,  beans,  except  Limas, 
corn,  and  vine  seeds  are  not  profitable  because  of  competition  with 
growers  in  the  middle-western  states.  Egg  plant,  in  spite  of  the 
excellence  of  the  vegetable  as  noted  in  an  earlier  chapter,  has  dis- 
appointed the  seed  growers,  and  okra  has  done  likewise.  Turnip 
and  Brussels  sprouts  have  not  prospered  as  seed  crops,  while  cab- 
bage does  excellently.  Cauliflower  also  seeds  well  some  years,  but 
in  others  it  completely  fails,  which  renders  its  average  below  the 
profit  line.  Lima  beans  for  seed  have  failed,  except  in  the  southern 
coast  district  described  in  the  chapter  on  beans,  but  in  that  district 
growers  have  enjoyed  some  very  profitable  contracts  with  eastern 
dealers. 

Flower  Seeds. — Various  flowers  have  been  grown  for  seed,  in 
fact,  a  great  assortment  of  varieties,  and,  while  nearly  all  kinds 
flourish,  there  is  so  much  hand  work  and  close  application  neces- 
sary, that  we  have  not  been  able  to  successfully  compete  with  Europe 
on  most  things.  Sweet  peas,  nasturtiums,  cosmos,  verbenas,  petu- 
nias, and  asters  are  quite  successfully  grown,  and  the  seed  trade 
now  looks  to  California  for  most  of  the  sweet  peas  and  a  great  many 
of  the  nasturtiums.  Southern  California  has  several  very  promi- 
nent growers  of  fine  double  petunias  and  other  plants. 

The  rapid  advance  of  the  California  sweet  pea  seed  in  popu- 
larity is  most  marvelous.  A  beginning  was  made  in  this  line  in  a 
moderate  way  about  1885,  when  there  were  not  over  a  dozen  varie- 
ties listed.  At  first  about  a  quarter  of  an  acre  was  grown;  now  the 
total  acreage  is  about  1250  acres  annually.  So  important  a  factor 
have  the  California  sweet  pea  growers  become  to  the  seed  trade 
that  some  dealers  come  from  the  east  annually  to  inspect  the  grow- 
ing crops  and  to  hunt  for  novelties  in  the  sweet  pea  line.  One  will 
know  California  sweet  pea  wherever  grown  by  its  wonderful  vigor. 

Sweet  peas  are  planted  in  November  and  December  to  secure 
the  flowers  at  their  very  best  about  the  middle  of  May.  They  grow 
slowly  throughout  the  winter,  but  just  as  soon  as  the  days  lengthen 
and  the  weather  grows  warm,  they  fairly  spring  into  bloom,  while 
later  sown  seed  will  mature  blossoms  correspondingly  late. 


METHODS    OF    SEED    HANDLING  311 

The  careful  grower  devotes  a  great  deal  of  time  to  roguing  his 
crops.  In  spite  of  the  greatest  care  in  selection  there  will  always 
be  a  few  off  plants,  and  these  must  come  out  to  keep  the  stock  pure. 

One  Use  of  Machinery. — Improved  cleaning  machinery  has 
proved  an  important  factor  in  the  production  of  a  bright,  fresh- 
looking  sample  of  seed,  and  has  improved  the  vitality  test  by  allow- 
ing a  thorough  separation  of  everything  spurious  from  the  good 
seed.  Hand  mills  are  employed  to  some  extent  for  small  lots,  but 
the  main  cleaning  is  done  with  large  Clipper  Mills,  operated  by 
gasoline  engines,  and  sometimes  the  electric  motor  is  used.  This 
gives  a  steadier  power  and  a  much  larger  capacity.  It  was  not  un- 
til a  few  years  ago  that  onion  seed  could  be  successfully  threshed 
and  separated  by  one  and  the  same  mill.  After  years  of  experi- 
menting and  great  expense,  one  was  built  that  could  successfully 
do  this,  and  now  onion  seed  is  threshed  and  cleaned  by  large  mills 
run  with  steam  engines.  It  is,  however,  still  necessary  to  sink  the 
seed  in  water  to  get  it  perfectly  clean. 

Hand  Labor. — Nothing  has  been  invented  for  threshing  lettuce, 
cabbage,  parsnip,  parsley,  etc.,  which  is  any  improvement  on  the  old 
hand  flail,  and  gangs  of  men  are  employed  in  threshing  these  crops. 
The  diversity  of  the  crops  and  the  innumerable  variety  would  make 
it  naturally  unprofitable  to  attempt  to  employ  machinery  in  the  field 
for  these  kinds  of  seed. 

The  seed  grower  must  depend  upon  a  great  deal  of  hand  work. 
Everything  must  be  harvested  by  hand;  every  onion  head  must  be 
cut  by  hand ;  every  stalk  of  lettuce  and  carrot  must  be  dried,  turned, 
threshed,  cleaned  and  recleaned.  Carrot  seed  must  not  only  be 
flailed  to  thresh  it,  but  it  must  also  be  run  through  a  rubbing  ma- 
chine to  break  the  beards  off  and  then  cleaned  in-doors. 

All  the  planting  and  cultivating  must  be  done  very  carefully, 
and  much  of  it  is  hand  work.  Every  onion  bulb  must  be  set  right 
side  up  in  the  row — then  carefully  covered.  Celery  plants  are  twice 
transplanted  before  being  finally  set  out  in  the  field.  Carrots  and 
all  roots  must  be  selected  and  taken  out  to  be  transplanted — all 
which  are  defective  in  shape  and  color  being  thrown  out. 

The  careful  seed  grower  always  makes  careful  selections  of 
everything  he  has  growing,  which  he  plants  separately  for  his  own 
stock  seed.  There  will  always  be  some  roots  or  plants  that  are 
rather  better  in  being  nearer  the  true  type  and  color  than  the  others, 


312  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

and  it  is  from  among  these  that  the  careful  grower  makes  his 
selections. 

Climatic  Advantages. — In  addition  to  the  advantages  of  the 
California  climate  in  growing  the  plants,  there  are  other  advantages 
in  handling  the  crop.  The  long,  dry  summers  afford  a  fine  oppor- 
tunity to  thoroughly  dry  the  seed  and  permit  a  large  part  of  the 
harvest  work  to  be  done  in  the  field.  It  is  not  necessary  to  build 
great  barns  and  drying  sheds  as  they  do  in  the  east,  although  the 
large  California  growers  provide  themselves  with  large  cleaning 
houses  and  storage  warehouses  into  which  to  take  the  seed  as  soon 
as  it  is  sacked  and  ready  for  shipment. 

The  Future. — It  has  taken  all  these  years  to  learn  how  to  grow 
seeds  and  to  have  trained  a  number  of  men  who  also  know  how,  and 
what  to  do,  so  that  in  the  future  even  greater  and  more  interesting 
developments  may  be  expected  in  all  branches  of  seed  growing. 
One  hardly  knows  what  the  possibilities  are,  but  the  past  has  clearly 
shown  that  our  soil  and  climate  will  be  great  aids  to  future  ac- 
complishment, and  in  our  wide  range  of  natural  conditions,  it  is 
reasonable  to  expect  that  many  things  not  now  undertaken,  may 
find  a  favorable  environment,  and  reward  the  intelligent  and  pains- 
taking grower. 


CHAPTER    XXXVIII. 

GARDEN  PROTECTION. 

There  are  three  main  lines  of  protection  to  which  the  vegetable 
grower  may  find  himself  compelled  to  give  attention,  and  he  may 
sometimes  be  so  beset  by  ills  that  he  will  cry  in  despair  that  all 
forces  of  earth,  air  and  sky  are  arrayed  against  his  enterprise.  For- 
tunately, however,  there  is  nothing  in  the  situation,  usually,  to  appall 
a  man  who  is  energetic  and  prompt  and  eager  for  success,  and  an 
effort  will  be  made  to  suggest  expedients  and  methods  which  will 
assist  in  repelling  various  destroying  agencies.  The  three  classes 
of  intruders  to  which  attention  will  be  called  are  these:  unfavor- 
able atmospheric  conditions;  injurious  insects  and  fungi;  injurious 
animals. 

PROTECTION    AGAINST    WINDS    AND    FROST. 

Protection  against  harsh  winds  has  already  been  incidentally 
mentioned  from  time  to  time.  There  are  very  few  places  where  a 
good  windbreak  will  not  be  of  decided  advantage,  and  if  the  gar- 
den ground  can  not  be  selected  so  as  to  enjoy  the  protection  of 
trees  and  buildings  already  in  place,  special  planting  or  construc- 
tion should  be  undertaken.  A  good  shelter  belt  of  trees,  preferably 
of  evergreen  foliage  so  placed  as  to  break  the  cold  winds  from  the 
direction  prevailing  in  the  locality,  will  be  found  of  immense  ad- 
vantage. Where  such  protection  is  not  practicable,  a  high  fence, 
even  if  not  closely  boarded,  will  afford  some  protection  to  a  much 
greater  width  of  ground  than  one  might  think  at  first. 

Protection  against  frost,  effective  against  a  drop  of  several  de- 
grees below  the  freezing  point,  is  also  possible  by  the  use  of  a 
smoke  smudge.  Most  effective  fires  are  those  which  yield  volumes 
of  steam  as  well  as  smoke,  so  that  masses  of  wet  straw  or  rubbish, 
placed  over  dry  stuff  enough  to  maintain  combustion,  are  the  best 
material.  Running  or  standing  water  close  to  the  plants  will  also 
prevent  frost  effect,  providing  the  temperature  does  not  sink  very 
far  below  the  freezing  point  nor  remain  there  too  long.  Under 

(313) 


314  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

such  conditions,  covers  of  paper,  burlap,  also  serve  a  good  purpose. 
The  whole  question  of  cheapest  and  most  effective  frost  protection 
in  California  is  still  open,  and  rather  than  prescribe  something 
which  might  soon  prove  relatively  inferior,  we  advise  all  growers 
to  read  regularly  some  California  horticultural  journal  in  which  the 
latest  discoveries  and  practices  are  described. 

INJURIOUS    INSECTS   AND    FUNGI. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  attacks  of  these  evils  are 
in  many  cases  conditioned  upon  weakness  and  unthrift  to  the  plant, 
and  the  danger  from  both  insects  and  blights  is  reduced  by  keeping 
the  plants  in  most  active  and  vigorous  growth.  Lack  of  cultivation, 
lack  of  plant  food  in  the  soil,  and  lack  of  moisture,  are  all  invitations 
to  these  invaders.  The  natural  resistance  of  the  plant  is  broken 
down,  and  it  becomes  a  prey  to  its  enemies.  But  the  best  growing 
conditions  do  not  render  plants  immune  against  all  pests.  Some  are 
so  aggressive  that  the  grower  has  to  fight  to  save  his  crop,  and  to 
fight  hard  sometimes. 

Fortunately,  warfare  against  insects  has  been  greatly  simpli- 
fied during  recent  years  by  the  use  of  remedies  of  comparatively 
recent  application.  There  are  two  chief  divisions  of  insects :  first, 
•biting  insects,  which  are  recognized  by  the  gardener  by  the  fact  that 
they  make  holes  in  the  foliage ;  second,  sucking  insects,  which  make 
no  holes,  but  pierce  and  extract  the  sap  in  such  a  way  that  the  leaf 
wilts,  loses  color  and  perhaps  dies  without  losing  any  appreciable 
part  of  its  surface.  Each  of  these  classes  has  its  own  remedy. 

Remedies  for  Biting  Insects. — Insects  which  consume  the  leaf 
surface  are  destroyed  by  poison,  and  this  can  be  used  in  such  minute 
quantities  as  not  to  destroy  the  foliage  nor  render  it  dangerous  for 
food  purposes  unless  the  plant  is  nearly  in  condition  for  eating,  and 
then,  of  course,  poison  on  the  foliage  is  very  dangerous  if  the  foliage 
is  the  edible  part.  If  the  edible  part  is  the  root  or  tuber,  poison  on 
the  foliage  is  not  dangerous.  The  most  widely  used  poison  was 
Paris  green  until  the  arsenate  of  lead  rose  to  such  prominence  in 
plant  protection,  either  used  as  a  powder  mixed  with  twenty  times 
its  bulk  of  flour  and  dusted  on  the  plant,  or  applied  as  a  spray  or 
sprinkle,  using  one  ounce  of  Paris  green  to  ten  or  twelve  gallons  of 
water.  This  will  kill  all  forms  of  insects,  large  or  small,  which 
make  holes  in  leaves.  It  only  becomes  ineffective  when  insects 


GARDEN    INSECTS  315 

occur  in  such  vast  multitudes  that  the  plant  is  all  consumed  before 
all  the  insects  are  supplied  with  the  poison.  Fortunately,  this  does 
not  often  occur  in  garden  practice. 

For  larvae  which  come  from  the  ground  and  destroy  the  plant 
by  cutting  the  stem,  Paris  green  and  arsenate  of  lead,  either  dust  or 
sprinkle,  may  be  placed  on  tender  leaves  or  sprigs  of  alfalfa  .which 
are  placed  on  the  ground  beside  the  plant  to  be  protected.  The 
most  injurious  insects  of  this  kind  are  called  "cutworms."  It  is 
also  often  satisfactory  to  use  the  poison  in  this  way:  Take  thirty 
pounds  bran,  two  pints  molasses,  one  pound  Paris  green ;  put  the 
molasses  into  six  quarts  of  hot  water,  add  the  bran  and  Paris  green, 
mixing  thoroughly  until  the  water  is  tinged  with  green.  Place  a 
spoonful  of  this  near  the  plants  and  wherever  the  worms  are,  not 
getting  it  too  near  the  stalk.  If  a  new  lot  of  worms  hatch,  the  dose 
will  have  to  be  repeated. 

The  same  preparation  is  also  very  effective  for  grasshoppers 
in  vineyards,  but  there  is  little  chance  of  coping  with  grasshoppers 
or  army  worms  in  the  garden  by  poisoning.  Unless  they  can  be 
checked  by  walls  of  fire  or  streams  of  running  water  around  the 
garden,  the  gardener  has  little  to  do  but  to  replant  as  soon  as  they 
have  passed  on  their  way. 

When  biting  insects  attack  plants  which  it  is  not  thought  safe 
to  poison,  the  use  of  a  powder  of  air-slacked  lime  or  of  dry  wood 
ashes  is  often  effective  in  discouraging  their  attacks.  Another 
repellant  which  sometimes  works  like  a  charm  is  kerosene  powder, 
made  by  stirring  a  tablespoonful  of  the  oil  to  a  quart  of  pulverized 
gypsum,  or  air-slacked  lime,  or  even  fine  road  dust.  Scatter  it  on 
and  around  the  plant. 

Plants  may  also  be  often  rendered  unattractive  to  insects  by 
free  sprinkling  with  tar  water.  Take  a  barrel  with  a  few  gallons 
of  gas  tar  in  it,  pour  water  on  the  tar,  and  have  it  always  ready 
when  needed.  When  the  insects  appear  give  them  a  liberal  dose 
of  the  tar  water  from  a  garden  sprinkler  or  otherwise ;  when  the 
rain  washes  it  off  the  leaves,  or  the  pests  return,  repeat  the  dose. 

There  are  other  biting  and  boring  insects  which  destroy  plants 
by  their  injuries  to  the  roots.  Wireworms  are  a  conspicuous  group 
of  these  destroyers.  All  underground  pests  are  naturally  difficult 
of  treatment  and  often  in  field  practice  they  can  not  be  economically 
destroyed  or  discouraged.  In  garden  practice,  however,  the  use  of 
soot  or  nitrate  of  soda,  in  very  small  quantities,  or  of  tobacco  dust, 


316  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

the  extract  of  which  is  carried  down  by  water  to  the  discomfiture 
of  the  pest,  is  often  effective  and  profitable. 

Another  group  of  biting  pests  though  not  strictly  insects  are 
slugs  and  snails.  They  can  be  poisoned  by  the  use  of  poisoned  leaves 
laid  on  the  ground,  or  they  can  be  trapped  either  with  leaves  or 
pieces  of  board  or  little  piles  of  wheat  bran.  Early  in  the  morning 
the  slugs  will  be  found  in  large  numbers  under  the  leaves  or  boards, 
or  collected  in  the  bran,  and  can  easily  be  gathered  up  for  breakfast 
in  the  poultry  yard.  Mother  hens  in  portable  coops  with  the  young 
chicks  running  among  the  plants,  are  a  very  good  solution  of  the 
slug  question  on  a  small  scale.  Myriads  of  slugs  in  the  garden  are 
often  due  to  excessive  surface  irrigation.  If  the  surface  is  finely 
worked  up  and  allowed  to  dry  it  is  very  discouraging  to  slugs  and 
is  otherwise  promotive  of  plant  growth. 

Remedies  for  Sucking  Insects. — These  are  pests  both  large  and 
small  which  bring  distress  to  plants  without  visibly  consuming  their 
substance,  as  has  already  been  described.  They  are  not  affected  by 
poison  on  the  surface.  They  must  be  killed  by  applications  which 
destroy  by  contact  with  the  exterior  of  the  insects.  The  universally 
approved  remedy  for  this  large  class  of  pests  is  kerosene  emulsion. 
If  properly  made  and  diluted,  it  is  harmless  to  the  plant  and  deadly 
to  the  insect.  The  formula  which  is  most  easily  prepared  and  most 
available  for  garden  work,  is  that  devised  by  Prof.  A.  J.  Cook  as 
follows : 

Common    laundry    soap -)4  pounds. 

Kerosene .3      pints. 

Water    4l/2  gallons. 

Cut  up  and  dissolve  the  soap  in  six  quarts  of  boiling  water  in  a 
five-gallon  oil  can.  Remove  from  the  fire  and  add  the  kerosene,  stir- 
ring vigorously  for  ten  minutes.  This  should  make  an  emulsion  from 
which  the  oil  will  not  separate  when  cool.  It  can  be  diluted  with 
water  enough  to  fill  the  five-gallon  can,  and  is  then  ready  for  appli- 
cation with  a  garden  syringe  or  spray-pump,  and  it  will  kill  all  in- 
sects which  are  covered  with  a  film  of  it.  A  fine  rose  sprinkler  can 
be  used,  but  it  is  wasteful  and  the  application  does  not  penetrate  as 
well  as  from  a  spray-nozzle. 

The  kerosene  emulsion  will  of  course  kill  the  insects  for  which 
poison  has  been  prescribed  and  is  available  whenever  the  use  of 
poison  is  thought  to  be  undesirable. 


GARDEN    FUNGI  317 

Whenever  insects  do  not  yield  to  the  treatments  proposed,  or 
whenever  the  use  of  these  remedies  does  not  seem  to  be  practicable, 
it  is  well  for  the  grower  to  apply  to  Prof.  C.  W.  Woodworth,  Uni- 
versity of  California,  Berkeley,  sending  a  specimen  of  the  insect 
and  of  its  work  if  possible.  An  answer  embodying  the  latest  infor- 
mation on  the  subject,  will  be  made  without  cost  to  the  applicant. 
Useful  descriptive  publications  can  also  be  sent  in  many  cases,  and 
as  information  is  thus  available,  it  is  not  necessary  to  attempt  de- 
tailed discussion  in  this  connection. 

INJURIOUS   FUNGI. 

Molds,  mildews  and  blights  seem  to  be  ever  on  the  alert  to 
attack  garden  plants  whenever  suitable  conditions  prevail.  Fortu- 
nately, California  is  much  less  subject  to  these  intrusions  than  coun- 
tries with  humid  summer  heat,  and  some  very  destructive  garden 
fungi  either  do  not  occur  here  or  occasion  very  little  trouble.  Still 
it  is  well  for  the  gardener  to  know  that  the  arrest  of  fungous  in- 
vasion is  a  very  much  simpler  proposition  than  it  was  a  few  years 
ago.  This  fact  is  due  to  the  recent  demonstration  of  the  efficacy 
of  solutions  of  copper  salts.  The  most  effective  preparation  is 
known  as  the  Bordeaux  mixture,  which  is  prepared  as  follows : 

Dissolve  one-half  pound  copper  sulphate  (bluestone)  in  two  and  one- 
half  gallons  of  water  in  a  wooden  pail,  slake  one-half  pound  fresh  lime  in 
one-half  gallon  of  hot  water,  stirring  and  rubbing  till  completely  slaked ; 
when  the  lime  is  cool  put  the  bluestone  solution  into  a  five-gallon  oil  can, 
and  add  the  lime  by  allowing  it  to  run  through  a  coarse  cloth'  strained  to 
remove  lumps  or  dirt.  Stir  in  water  enough  to  fill  the  can  and  it  is  ready 
for  use.  The  mixture  should  not  stand  in  a  metal  vessel. 

This  makes  a  light  blue  whitewash  which  will  be  effective  as  it 
slowly  diffuses  its  components  over  the  leaf  surface.  In  our  dry 
summer  it  remains  operative  for  a  long  time.  It  does,  however, 
make  the  plant  unhandsome,  and  where  a  fungicide  is  desired  which 
does  not  discolor  the  leaves,  the  following  may  be  substituted  for 
the  Bordeaux  mixture: 

Dissolve  three-fourths  ounce  of  copper  sulphate  (bluestone)  in  one  quart 
of  warm  water,  and  one  ounce  of  salsoda  (washing  soda)  in  another  quart 
of  warm  water.  When  both  are  cool,  mix  them  together  and  add  five 
ounces  of  washing  ammonia.  When  the  mixture  is  clear,  after  standing 
long  enough  to  accomplish  that,  add  cold  water  to  make  five  gallons. 


318  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

Some  fungi  are  quite  readily  checked  by-  the  use  of  dry  sulphur, 
but  when  this  is  not  effective,  the  copper  compounds  will  be  found 
satisfactory. 

In  many  cases  the  attacks  of  fungi  may  be  avoided  by  keeping 
the  plants  growing  thriftily,  or  by  choosing  varieties  which  are  not 
affected  by  the  diseases  to  which  other  varieties  succumb.  Wher- 
ever this  course  is  open  to  the  gardener,  it  will  be  'found  more  satis- 
factory than  the  application  of  remedies. 

DESTRUCTIVE   ANIMALS    AND   BIRDS. 

Against  the  larger  marauders  from  the  forest,  the  field  or  the 
barn-yard,  the  farm  garden  must  be  protected  by  an  adequate  fence 
close  enough  to  exclude  fowls  and  jack-rabbits.  For  the  latter 
purpose  closely  set  strands  of  barbed  wire  are  the  cheapest  material. 
The  bottom  wire  must  be  set  low  enough  to  prevent  entrance  by 
scratching  under.  Even  when  a  neater  fence  is  made  of  wire  net- 
ting, strands  of  barbed  wire  above  and  below  are  often  very  useful. 
'  Squirrels. — Ground  squirrels  should  be  destroyed  in  the  ad- 
joining fields  as  well  as  in  the  garden,  or  its  protection  is  almost  a 
hopeless  undertaking.  When  the  ground  is  wet,  squirrels  are  very 
satisfactorily  destroyed  with  carbon  bisulphide,  and  this  material, 
with  appliances  and  instructions  for  its  use,  can  be  had  in  nearly  all 
country  stores. 

In  dry  soil  the  carbon  bisulphide  is  not  so  effective,  and  some 
of  the  many  good  squirrel  poisons  must  be  used.  The  following 
has  been  shown  to  be  very  satisfactory : 

Strychnine,  one  ounce ;  cyanide  of  potassium,  one  and  one-half  ounces ; 
eggs,  one  dozen ;  honey,  one  pint ;  vinegar  one  and  one-half  pints ;  wheat  or 
barley,  thirty  pounds.  Dissolve  the  strychnine  in  the  vinegar,  pulverizing  it 
in  the  vinegar,  or  it  will  gather  in  a  lump.  See  that  it  is  all  dissolved.  Dis- 
solve the  cyanide  of  potassium  in  a  little  water.  Beat  the  eggs.  Mix  all  the 
ingredients  together  thoroughly  before  adding  to  the  barley.  Let  it  stand 
twenty-four  hours,  mixing  often.  Spread  to  dry  before  using,  as  it  will 
mold  if  put  away  wet.  In  wheat  districts  use  wheat,  and  in  barley  districts 
use  barley,  as  they  eat  it  better.  Look  out  for  the  poultry  and  stock. 

Gophers. — Some  gardeners  are  very  successful  in  gopher  trap- 
ping. It  is  an  act  which  has  to  be  learned  by  experience  and  patient 
observation.  The  following  suggestions  are  made  by  an  expert 
and  they  may  be  helpful  to  beginners : 


TRAPPING    GOPHERS  319 

Gophers  come  to  the  -  surface  in  the  night  and  generally  close  their 
holes  in  the  morning  soon  after  daybreak.  They  frequently  emerge  again 
about  noon,  and  a  third  time  late  in  the  afternoon.  It  is  best  to  set  the  trap 
in  an  open  hole,  as  the  gopher  will  be  sure  to  return  to  fill  it.  Still  the  holes 
may  be  opened  if  the  dirt  is  still  fresh,  with  a  good  prospect  of  the  gopher's 
return.  Therefore  the  trapper  may  make  his  rounds  three  times  a  day,  as 
above  indicated. 

In  the  second  place,  care  should  be  exercised  in  preparing  the  hole  for 
the  insertion  of  the  trap.  The  trapper  should  assure  himself  that  he  has 
found  a  straight  hole  for  a  distance  of  at  least  ten  indie's,  with  no  lateral 
branches,  otherwise  the  gopher  in  pushing  out  the  dirt  will  likely  enough 
thrust  the  trap  to  one  side,  cover  it  up  or  spring  it  without  being  exposed 
to  its  grasp. 

In  the  third  place,  the  trapper  should  be  supplied  with  at  least  two 
varieties  of  traps — one  for  the  larger  gophers  and  the  other  for  the  smaller 
ones.  The  common  iron  gopher  trap,  which  springs  downward,  is  excel- 
lent for  the  former,  and  the  small  wire  trap,  which  springs  upward,  is  gen- 
erally successful  with  the  latter.  It  is  taken  for  granted  that  the  size  of 
the  hole  is  indicative  of  the  size-  of  the  gopher.  Either  trap  should  be  in- 
serted nearly  its  full  length  into  the  hole,  pressed  down  firmly,  and  a  little 
dirt  piled  at  the  outer  end  to  prevent  its  being  easily  pushed  out.  After  the 
trap  is  set  it  is  well  to  cover  the  opening  with  some  grass  or  weeds.  Some- 
times the  holes  require  a  little  enlarging,  but  care  should  be  taken  to  make 
the  fit  as  close  as  possible,  that  the  body  of  the  gopher  may  be  kept  near  the 
center,  and  thus  more  exposed  to  the  prongs  of  the  trap. 

In  the  fourth  place,  the  trapper  should  be  supplied  with  a  small  spade 
and  a  little  gouge-shaped  implement  for  trimming  the  hole. 

Finally,  the  trapper  should  be  supplied  with  traps  as  numerous  as  the 
extent  of  the  pest  demands.  He  should  not  be  discouraged  by  lack  of  suc- 
cess at  first.  Perseverance  is  as  essential  in  this  work  as  in  any  other,  and 
will  generally  win.  We  have  in  mind  the  successful  capture  of  a  big  gopher 
after  trapping  for  him  a  week,  changing  the  trap  two  or  three  times  a  day; 
he  had  then  destroyed  about  fifty  hills  of  corn.  How  much  damage  he  and 
his  descendants  might  have  done  had  not  his  career  of  devastation  been 
interrupted,  can  only  be  estimated  by  such  multiples  as  attach  to  the  propa- 
gation of  that  particular  species. 

Poisoning  is  an  easier  method  of  destroying  gophers,  and  it  is 
very  satisfactory  if  faithfully  done.  The  poison  is  strychnine  in 
crystal  form,  which  can  be  pulverized  in  the  small  bottle  in  which 
it  is  bought  by  using  the  head  of  a  nail.  Take  out  a  very  small 
amount  on  the  tip  of  a  knife  blade  and  insert  it  into  raisins,  or  pieces 
of  carrot,  potato,  alfalfa  stems,  or  almost  any  succulent  vegetable 
substance  which  is  handy  at  the  time.  Find  where  the  gopher  has 
been  at  work  last,  and  remove  the  loose  earth  from  the  surface,  to 
find  where  it  has  come  from ;  then  dig  down  to  find  the  main  run- 
way, generally  from  six  to  twelve  inches.  The  runway  being  found, 


320  .      CALIFORNIA   VEGETABLES 

clean  out  any  dirt  that  may  have  dropped  into  it,  and  place  the 
poison  a  little  distance  from  the  opening.  Then  seal  up  the  hole 
with  a  lump  of  earth  or  sod,  being  careful  that  none  drops  in  on  the 
poison,  and  put  the  dirt  back  as  it  was  before.  The  gopher  will 
soon  return  to  his  labor,  and  will  seldom  fail  to  pick  up  the  bait. 

It  is  often  useless  to  put  poison  in  holes  left  open  by  gophers 
when  at  work,  as  they  shove  the  poison  out  with  the  dirt,  and  it  be- 
comes lost.  If  .a  hole  is  opened  and  poison  placed  therein  it  should 
be  closed  up  again,  as  the  gopher,  seeing  the  light  and  feeling  the  air 
where  it  was  not  intended,  goes  to  work  to  remedy  that  evil  by 
shoving  a  load  of  dirt  against  the  opening,  thereby  covering  up  or 
throwing  out  the  bait. 

Sotnetimes  the  same  poisoned  grain  used  for  squirrels  can  be 
successfully  used  for  gophers  by  placing  it  in  the  runways  as  first 
described. 

The  Mole. — The  mole  is  an  insect-eater  and  as  such  is  benefi- 
cial, but  he  destroys  so  many  plants  while  mining  for  grubs  and 
worms,  that  a  gardener  can  well  dispense  with  his  services.  The 
best  way  to  do  this  is  to  watch  for  the  rising  soil  and  striking  in 
just  behind  the -mole  with  a  spade  or  shovel,  throw  him  out  and 
finish  him.  When  he  is  working  in  the  lawn  or  the  ground  is  too 
hard  for  this  treatment,  strike  into  the  moving  earth  with  a  hatchet. 
It  generally  reaches  the  animal,  and  we  have  killed  more  moles  in 
this  way  than  in  any  other. 


CHAPTER   XXXIX. 

WEEDS  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

For  fear  that  a  book  on  gardening  without  a  chapter  on  weeds 
might  prove  too  great  a  shock  to  horticultural  propriety,  this  con- 
cession is  made  to  conventionality.  The  fact  is  that  the  California 
gardener  gives  himself  less  concern  about  weeds  than  the  distant 
reader  can  perhaps  realize.  There  are  several  reasons  for^ihis. 

First:  It  is  possible  to  get  quite  clean  ground  for  winter  gar- 
dening by  weed-killing  cultivation  before  planting.  This  is  one  ad- 
vantage of  our  long  planting  season. 

Second :  Winter  gardening  is  free  from  many  weeds  which 
only  grow  in  high  temperatures. 

Third :  Owing  to  the  long  spring  season  it  is  possible  to  clean 
with  plow  and  cultivators,  the  land  which  is  to  be  planted  after 
frosts  are  over. 

Fourth:  Summer  growth  of  weeds  is  largely  prevented  by 
the  dry  surface  layer  of  the  soil  and  those  which  do  start  are  de- 
stroyed by  the  persistent  summer  cultivation  which  is  essential  to 
the  preservation  of  moisture  for  the  crop. 

Fifth:  Many  of  the  worst  weeds  of  humid  climates  can  not 
survive  our  dry  summer  in  uncultivated  soil  and  are  thus  prevented 
from  becoming  serious  pests  here  because  of  their  own  natural 
limitations. 

And  yet  we  do  have  weeds,  magnificent  weeds,  weeds  which 
reflect  the  growth-giving  resources  of  our  soil  and  climate  quite  as 
strikingly  as  do  our  useful  plants.  Mustard,  turnip  and  radish 
extend  laterals  for  the  birds  of  the  air  to  rest  upon.  Smartweed 
grows  in  some  places  too  high  for  a  man  to  look  over;  in  other 
places  morning-glory,  licorice,  Bermuda  and  Johnson  grasses  have 
a  grip  upon  the  soil  which  it  is  almost  impossible  to  loosen.  Jimson, 
dogfennel  and  others,  numerous  beyond  mention,  are  found  in 
varying  amounts  everywhere;  but  for  the  season  stated  above  they 
do  not  give  the  gardener  such  grievance  against  fate  as  their  names 
might  suggest.  On  the  other  hand,  Canada  thistle  and  burdock 

(321) 


322  CALIFORNIA    VEGETABLES 

are  almost  unknown,  while  pusley  and  quack  grass  have  in  some 
places  assumed  quite  an  air  of  respectability  as  forage  plants. 

Naturally  weeds  are  worst  in  soils  which  are  moist  in  summer, 
such  as  the  rich  lowlands,  and  on  such  lands  the  California  vege- 
table grower  has  to  fight  for  his  crop.  Some  winter-grown  plants, 
like  onions,  are  secured  at  the  cost  of  much  weeding  in  some  situa- 
tions. Still  it  is  true,  as  remarked  above,  that  weeds  do  not,  taking 
the  state  as  a  whole,  call  for  such  an  amount  of  expensive  effort  as 
they  occasion  in  humid  climates,  and  if  the  garden  is  arranged,  as 
it  should  be,  for  the  free  use  of  horse-power,  the  burden  of  hand 
pulling  and  hoeing  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  the  exertion  of  a 
prolonged  hand-to-hand  contest  with  weeds  is  seldom  heard  of  in 
California. 

For  these  reasons,  perhaps,  California  has  no  special  contribu- 
tions to  make  to  general  knowledge  of  weed  killing.  So  far,  however, 
as  her  experience  goes  it  is  most  strenuously  in  favor  of  destroying 
weeds  as  robbers  of  moisture  which  must  be  saved  for  useful  plants. 
The  California  garden  must  be  clean  and  the  surface  must  be  fre- 
quently stirred,  whether  weeds  appear  or  not.  It  may  be  fortunate, 
then,  that  we  are  not  altogether  free  from  weeds,  for  their  invitation 
to  slaughter  accomplishes  far  more  for  the  garden  than  their  own 
destruction. 


INDEX 


Adobe,  improvement  of 45 

April,  work  of   - 112 

Artichokes   139 

gathering   141 

globe . 139 

growing  seedlings  140 

Jerusalem    141 

planting    out    140 

soils    for 140 

varieties   141 

Ashes,    value    of. . 

Asparagus   144 

iield   culture    147 

garden    planting    146 

growing   plants    145 

harvesting   150 

localities    for    144 

marketing    151 

season  151 

soils    for    144 

varieties    151 

August,   work  for    110 

Beans 153 

bush    165 

canning 303 

climbing  167 

drying,    storing    305 

field  culture    154 

garden  culture   164 

harvesting 158 

irrigating 168 

localities    for    154 

planting   157 

soils  for   156 

threshing 159 

transplanting    168 

varieties   for  field 162 

Beds,  raised   61 

Beets 

cultivation   174 

garden  culture   170 

harvesting   177 

planting   174 

pulp   178 

season 178 

soils  and  situations 172 

stock  179 

sugar    171 

thinning   177 

tillage  for    173 

varieties  173,  179,  180 

yield 174 

Bordeaux  mixture    .  ..317 


Borecole 193 

Broccoli    181 

Brussels   sprouts    188 

Cabbage  ,181 

field  culture    185 

growing  plants    184 

harvesting   187 

planting     184 

soil    183 

stock  187 

varieties   187 

California  climate /8,  34 

garden   calendar    109 

soils   excellent    41 

Cans  for  plant  grovvmg  137 

Cantaloupes    229 

Capers    297 

Cardoon  141 

Carrot   195 

field  cuuure    196 

garden    culture    197 

ridge   culture    197 

soils  195 

varieties   197 

Cauliflower   188 

garden    culture    190 

growing  plants    190 

planting   190 

varieties   .    192 

Celeriac    208 

Celery 201 

blanching  207 

crowding    206 

field  culture    204 

garden    culture    203 

growing   plants    204 

harvesting  207 

locations 202 

soils 202 

varieties   208 

Chervil  298 

Chick  pea    257 

Chicory   ..209 

culture    210 

drying    and    roasting 210 

harvesting  and   curing 210 

soil    210 

yield    and    value 210 

Chives    252 

Ciboule  .  ..252 


324 


INDEX 


Climate  of  California   ...  .„ 28, 

coast    valleys    

early   regions   

frostless    places     

interior   lowlands    

irrigated  desert  valleys 

mountain  valleys   

plains  and  foothills    

Cloth  for  covering  beds,  etc 

Cloudiness  and  sunshine   

Cold   frame,   the    

Corn   

canning    

culture 

drying 

field  and  silage   

locations    

planting    

soil • 

varieties  

Corn    salads    

Cress     

Cucumber   

culture    

locations    for    

varieties   

Cultivation     (see    tillage)  . .  . 

flat  

garden   

summer    


34 
30 
33 
37 
31 
33 
33 
32 
133 
35 
129 
212 
304 
216 
306 
217 
212 
.213 
.213 
.216 
.298 
.298 
.218 
.220 
.218 
.221 
.  78 
.  87 
.  86 
.  79 


Dandelion 298 

December,   work  for    Ill 

Ditches,    irrigation     62 

Drainage    in    California 72 

benefits    of    73 

not   always    necessary 75 

surface  74 

under   drainage    75 

Drying  vegetables 304 

Earliest   regions    37 

Egg  plant    222 

culture    *£J 

locations    for    222 

varieties   223 

Endive   211 

Engines,  gasoline    53 

steam   53 

Farm  gardens    20 

benefits    of    23 

economics   of    24 

essentials  to  success    21 

profitable   24 

February,  work  for  112 

Fences    100 

Fertilizers    in    California 89 

Frost,  effects  on  vegetables 119 

occurrences    of    37 


Frostless  places  37 

Fungi,   remedies   for    317 

Furrow    irrigation    65 

Garden,   arrangement    99 

calendar 109,  121 

horse  work  in   101 

insects    314 

location   of 99 

place    in    fhixed    farming 25 

practice,  diversity  in    18 

protection    100 

succession  and  rotation    120 

unirrigated    48 

weeds 321 

winds  and  frosts   313 

work    seasonable    107 

Garlic    251 

Garbanzos    257 

Germination,  conditions   for    125 

Gherkin   299 

Gophers    318 

Gumbo   300 

1 

Hilling  87 

Hills,    transplanting     136 

Hillside    irrigation     65 

Hoe  in  California    83 

Horse  radish    275 

Horse   work,    arrangement    for...  101 

Hot-bed,   -the    130 

Hot  box,  the    131 

Hydraulic    rams    54 

Insects,   remedies   for    314 

Irrigation,   garden    48 

advantages   of    48 

check    system     •  60 

current   wheels    54 

fertilizing  value  of  71 

furrow    system    65 

hillside   65 

how  much    69 

hydraulic  rams  54 

money  value  of  71 

must   be   adequate    70 

permanent   ditch    system    62 

picturesque    64 

pumps   53 

raised    beds    61 

ridge    system    63 

seepage 62 

siphons    55 

sources    of    49 

subirrigation    59 

winter    68 

January,  work  for    Ill 

Jersey    kale    181 


INDEX 


325 


July,    work   for 
June,    work    for 


110 

..113 


Kale   or  borecole    193 

Jersey   194 

marrow    194 

Kerosene    emulsion    316 

Kitchen  Herbs  299 

Kohl-rabi    294 

Leek   251 

Lentil   257 

Lettuce    224 

culture    225 

varieties   227 

Manures,  absorbents  of 95 

animal    90 

as    mulch    96 

bone    97 

composting    93 

deterioration    of    91 

liquid    95 

tanks    for    93 

March,   work   for    112 

May,  work  for  113 

Melons    ...229 

cantaloupe     229 

culture 232 

varieties   234 

winter  235 

watermelon    236 

culture    237 

harvesting    237 

location  for 236 

varieties   238 

Moisture,  absorption  of   79 

conditions    of    79 

conservation    of    80 

must  be  adequate   70 

Mole    320 

Mulch,   earth    81 

Mulching    127 

Mushrooms    299 

Muskmelons 229 

Mustard  300 

Nasturtium 300 

November,  work  for   Ill 

October,  work  for    Ill 

Okra  300 

Onions   240 

culture   249 

drying 304 

harvesting  248 

irrigation    248 

localities    242 

seed  growing 242 

seed  planting  243 


Onions,  sets  246 

soils  241 

transplanting 244,  246 

varieties  250 

Orchard,  vegetables  in   103 

Parsley    301 

Parsnip    198 

soils   and   culture    199 

varieties   199 

Peas   353 

canning  304 

culture    254 

drying   green    305 

early   255 

field   culture   256 

soils    and    situations    254 

sugar    peas    257 

varieties    256 

squarepod    .    ..." 302 

Peat    soils    for   vegetables 44 

Peppers    258 

culture    259 

varieties 261 

Planting    season    107 

Planting    time,    tables 114 

Plow,  use  of 80 

Potatoes 262 

culture    266 

drying 305 

harvesting   268,273 

irrigation   267 

mulching   268 

season 273 

situations   264 

soils 265 

storing 268 

sweet    269 

varieties    269,  273 

Propagation    123 

cold  frame 129 

from    seed    124 

hills    for    transplanting 136 

hot-bed   130 

hot  box 131 

seed-boxes    128 

seedlings,    handling    134 

warm  heap   132 

watering 132 

Pumpkins    282 

Pumps,   Chinese    53 

service  of 53 

Radishes   274 

culture  274 

varieties  275 

Rainfall,  occurrence  of  36 

Reservoir  construction    55 

subterranean  .  .  59 


326 


INDEX 


Rhubarb    277 

culture    277 

planting   278 

seedlings    279 

treatment  278 

varieties   279 

Ridge  culture 86 

Roselle  301 

Rutabaga   294 

Salsify  199 

culture    199 

varieties   200 

Sandy  soil,  improvements  of 46 

Sea  kale  . 301 

Seed-boxes    128 

covering   133 

firming   soil    for    126 

mulching   .    . . 81, 127 

planting  conditions  of 126 

Seed  growing  in   California 307 

lettuce  309 

onion    309 

other  seed 310 

preparation   for  market    311 

Seedlings,    planting    135 

September,  work  for   1 10 

Shallot    252 

Soils,  adobe 45 

alluvial 43 

deep   not   essential    40 

vegetable   of    California 42 

desirable  characters  of    42 

improvements    of    44,46 

light  soils  preferred    40 

peat  44 

sediment 44 

Spinach   280 

culture    280 

New    Zealand    281 

varieties   281 

Square  pod   pea    302 

Squashes   282 

culture   283 

large   282 

varieties    285 

Squirrels    318 

Sub-irrigation    . 59 

Summer    fallow    79 

Sweet   potatoes    269 

culture 271 

harvesting 273 

growing  plants    271 

planting   272 

storing   273 

varieties    273 


Tillage,  early  80 

flat 87 

for  absorption  79 

for  retention  80,  82 

to  release  moisture  88 

with  irrigation 85 

Tomato  286 

canning  304 

culture  289 

growing  plants  290 

irrigation  292 

localities  286 

planting  out 291 

requirements  288 

varieties  293 

yield  292 

Trench    irrigation     59 

Turnip  294 

culture  295 

varieties  .  296 


Under    drainage 


Vegetable    sundries 297 

Vegetables,  canning  and  drying. . 

303,  304 

at  missions 12 

by    foreigners    14 

chance    for  •  Americans 14 

cheaper  bought   20 

climatic    requirements    34 

furnish  capital   for  fruit 11 

growing  in    California    9 

in   your  orchard    103 

.    pioneer    9 

shipping   17 

soils  for 40 

weights  and  sizes  16 

Water,  importance  of  21 

application    of 60 

lifting    devices    52,  54 

requirements   of  soils    51 

supply,  sources  of  52,  55 

Waterproof  cloth    133 

Weeds  in  California   321 

Wells,    artesian    52 

Windmills,  service  of   52 

Winter    gardening    36 

irrigation    68 

Wheels,   current    54 

Work,  importance  of   21 

for  the  months    . , 108 

seasonable  107 

Yam   302 

Year,   division  of  garden 109 


14  DAY  USE 

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